Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in domestic indoor dust from Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom and United States

Because of the similarities in European and North American dietary exposure, it has been suggested that the order of magnitude higher body burdens in North Americans may be due to international variations in exposure via ingestion of indoor dust. Furthermore, ingestion of indoor dust has been suggested as a possible source of PBDEs in the blood serum of New Zealanders. Hence, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in domestic indoor dust from: Amarillo/Austin, Texas, US; Birmingham, UK; Toronto, Canada; and Wellington, New Zealand. Concentrations of BDE 209 in two UK samples were - at 520,000 and 100,000 ng g(-1) - the highest ever recorded in a domestic (or office) indoor dust sample. Median concentrations in ng g(-1) were: in Canada 620 and 560 for Sigmatri-hexa-BDEs and BDE 209 respectively; in New Zealand 96, BDE 209 not determined; in the UK 59 and 2,800; and in the US 1600 and 1300. With respect to BDE 209, concentrations were in the order: UK approximately US>Canada. For Sigmatri-hexa-BDEs, the order of concentrations was US approximately Canada>New Zealand approximately UK. Combined with principal component analysis of congener patterns, this suggests that, while North American dusts are contaminated by both Deca- and Penta-BDE commercial formulations, UK dusts are contaminated predominantly by Deca-BDE. The Octa-BDE formulation appears of minimal importance in accordance with available market demand figures. Despite the commercial formulations of PBDEs never having been manufactured in, nor imported into New Zealand, their presence in dusts from that country suggests international trade in PBDE-containing goods is an important pathway effecting their global distribution.     

Passive sampling: A cost-effective method for understanding antibiotic fate,behaviour and impact

The occurrence of antibiotics in the environment has raised much concern in recent years. Understanding their release, fate and behaviour in the environment is vital to assess potential risks. In this study, a novel passive water sampler – diffusion gradients in thin-films for organics (o-DGT) – was employed to assess the occurrence and removal of antibiotics in two waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) — one in China and the other in the United Kingdom (UK). Of the targeted compounds, 11 of 19 were detected in the Chinese WWTP (ND—200 ng/L) and 10 of 40 were found in the UK plant (ND—1380 ng/L). Florfenicol, lincomycin, ofloxacin and roxithromycin were most abundant in the Chinese WWTP (influent), while anhydrous erythromycin, ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim, ofloxacin and sulfapyridine were the most abundant in the UK influent samples. Estimated Chinese and UK consumption data are used to interpret the results. Neither of the WWTPs was very effective at removing antibiotics: ~ 40–50% (overall) was removed by the two plants, with the rest being discharged into the receiving rivers. This is the first study using o-DGT to assess the occurrence and removal of antibiotics in WWTPs. o-DGT is a useful, cost-effective tool to assess WWTP performance and can highlight the effectiveness of treatment steps, which can be applied to wastewater based epidemiology studies.     

Sources and human exposure implications of concentrations of organophosphate flame retardants in dust from UK cars,classrooms, living rooms,and offices

Concentrations of a number of organophosphate flame retardants (PFRs) were measured in floor dust collected from UK living rooms (n = 32), cars (n = 21), school and child daycare centre classrooms (n = 28), and offices (n = 61). While concentrations were overall broadly within the range of those reported previously for North America, Japan, and other European countries, median concentrations of TCIPP in all UK microenvironments exceeded those reported elsewhere in the world. Moreover, concentrations of TCIPP and TDCIPP in 2 UK car dust samples were – at 370 μg g^− 1 and 740 μg g^− 1 respectively – amongst the highest reported globally in indoor dust to date. Consistent with this, concentrations of TDCIPP in dust from UK cars exceed significantly those detected in the other microenvironments studied. Concentrations of EHDPP were shown for the first time to be significantly higher in classroom dust than in samples from other microenvironments. When compared to concentrations of PBDEs determined previously in the classroom dust samples; concentrations of all target PFRs exceeded substantially those of those PBDEs that are the principal constituents of the Penta- and Octa-BDE formulations. Moreover, while mass-based concentrations of BDE-209 exceeded those of most of our target PFRs, they still fell below those of TCIPP and EHDPP. In line with a previous observation in Sweden that indoor air contamination with TNBP was significantly lower in newer buildings; concentrations of TNBP in classroom dust were significantly higher in older compared to more recently-constructed schools. Consistent with the reported extensive use of TCIPP and TDCIPP in polyurethane foam, the highest concentrations of both TCIPP and TDCIPP in the classrooms studied, were observed in rooms containing the highest numbers of foam chairs (n = 31 and 18 respectively). Exposure to PFRs of both adults and young children via ingestion of indoor dust was estimated. While even our high-end exposure estimate for young children was ~ 100 times lower than one previously reported health-based limit (HBLV) value for TCIPP; the margin of safety was only 5-fold when compared to another HBLV for this contaminant.     

Tetrabromobisphenol-A, hexabromocyclododecane and its degradation products in UK human milk: relationship to external exposure

Tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBP-A), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and its degradation products were determined in 34 human milk samples from Birmingham, UK. TBBP-A was detected in 36% of samples (average=0.06 ng g(-1) lw), with HBCDs detected in all samples (average ΣHBCDs=5.95 ng g(-1) lw). α-HBCD comprised 62-95% ΣHBCDs while β- and γ-HBCD constituted 2-18% and 3-33% respectively. Enantioselective enrichment of (-)-α-HBCD (average enantiomer fraction=0.29) was observed indicating potential enantioselectivity associated with HBCD absorption, metabolism and/or excretion. The degradation products pentabromocyclododecenes (average=0.04 ng g(-1) lw; n=9) and tetrabromocyclododecadienes (average=0.15 ng g(-1) lw; n=25) were detected for the first time in human tissues. Average exposures of a nursing infant to ΣHBCDs and TBBP-A (35 and 1 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1) respectively) via breast milk exceeded upper-bound dietary intakes of both UK adults and toddlers. Using a simple pharmacokinetic model, intakes of UK adults via inhalation, diet and dust ingestion were converted to predicted body burdens. Predictions compared well with those observed for HBCDs but observed body burdens of TBBP-A exceeded predictions. This may indicate the human half-life of TBBP-A is greater than observed previously, that intakes may be underestimated, or that concentrations reported here reflect recent elevated episodic exposure.     

A cost-effectiveness analysis of radon protection methods in domestic properties: a comparative case study in Brixworth, Northamptonshire, UK

Building regulations in the UK have since 1992 required that radon-proof membranes be installed in new domestic properties to protect residents against the adverse effects of radon. This study compares the cost-effectiveness of the current regulatory regime with an alternative that would entail new properties being tested for radon after construction, and being remediated if necessary. The alternative regime is found to be more cost-effective for a sample of properties in Brixworth, Northamptonshire, UK. For this regime, the central estimate of cost per quality-adjusted life-year gained, the measure of cost-effectiveness used, is 2869 pounds compared to 6182 pounds for installing membranes, results suggesting a case for re-examining the current regulations on radon protection in new properties. Pilot studies will, however, be needed to consider how different means of protecting residents of new properties against radon might operate in practice and to provide improved evidence on their relative cost-effectiveness.     

Carcinogenic potential, levels and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon mixtures in indoor and outdoor environments and their implications for air quality standards

Both the World Health Organization and the UK Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards (EPAQS) have considered benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) as a marker of the carcinogenic potency of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) mixture, when recommending their respective guidelines for PAHs in outdoor air. The aim of this research is to compare the concentrations and relative abundance of individual PAH and their contribution to the overall carcinogenic potential of the PAH mixture in indoor and outdoor environments to assess the suitability of the UK air quality standard derived for outdoor air for use as a guideline for indoor environments. Samples were collected onto filters using active sampling in different indoor and outdoor microenvironments. The ratio of individual compounds to BaP, the BaP equivalent concentrations and the percentage contribution of each individual compound to the total carcinogenic potential of the PAH mixture were calculated. Mean concentrations were generally lower indoors (BaP=0.10 ng/m(3)) than outdoors (BaP=0.19 ng/m(3)), with the exception of indoor environments with wood burners (BaP=2.4 ng/m(3)) or ETS (BaP=0.6 ng/m(3)). The ratio of individual PAHs to BaP showed no significant differences between indoors (e.g. DahA/BaP=0.27) and outdoors (DahA/BaP=0.31). The relative contribution of BaP to the PAH overall carcinogenic potency is similar indoors (49%), outdoors (54%) and in the smelter environment (48%) used by EPAQS to derive the UK Air Quality Standard for ambient air. These results suggest the suitability of BaP as a marker for the carcinogenic potential of the PAH mixture irrespective of the environment. Despite small differences in PAH mixture composition indoors and outdoors, the level of protection afforded by the present EPAQS standard is likely to be similar whether it is applied to indoor or outdoor air.     

Achievements, difficulties and future challenges for the FARMING network

The EC FARMING network (Food and Agriculture Restoration Management Involving Networked Groups) was set up to bring together the many and diverse stakeholders who would be involved in intervention following wide scale radioactive contamination of the food chain, so that acceptable strategies can be developed for maintaining agricultural production and safe food supply. The network comprises stakeholder panels in the UK, Finland, Belgium, France and Greece that have met regularly since 2001 to debate, discuss and exchange opinion on the acceptability, constraints and impact of various countermeasure options and strategies. The objectives of this paper are to consolidate the main achievements of the FARMING project over the period 2000-2004, to highlight the various difficulties that were encountered and to discuss the challenges for engaging stakeholders in off-site emergency management and long-term rehabilitation in the future.     

Rebirth,Devastation and Sickness: Analyzing the Role of Metaphor in Media Discourses of Nuclear Power

Nuclear power plays an important but controversial role in policies to ensure domestic energy security, fuel poverty reduction and the mitigation of climate change. Our article construes the problem of nuclear power in terms of social discourse, language and public choice; specifically examining the role that metaphors play in the policy domain. We empirically analyze metaphors as framing devices in nuclear energy policy debates in the UK between April 2009 and March 2013, thereby capturing the impact of the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011. We employ documentary analysis of major UK national broadsheet and tabloid newspapers, using electronic bibliographic tools to extract the metaphors. We then map these metaphors using a Type Hierarchy Analysis, which examines how elements of the target domain (energy technologies and policies) originate from a different source domain. Type hierarchies identify and categorize metaphors, defining the affectual and emotional responses associated with them, providing us with grounded insight into their role in shaping discourse and as a consequence influence public engagement with energy policy. Our analysis highlights three emergent domains of discourse metaphors and discusses the implications of their deployment. Metaphors were found to be classified into three different categories: Rebirth (Renaissance), Devastation (Apocalypse, Inferno, Genie and Bomb) and Sickness (Addiction and Smoking).     

The impact of climate change on tourism in Germany,the UK and Ireland: a simulation study

We downscale the results of a global tourism simulation model at a national resolution to a regional resolution. We use this to investigate the impact of climate change on the regions of Germany, Ireland and the UK. Because of climate change, tourists from all three countries would spend more holidays in the home country. In all three countries, climate change would first reduce the number of international arrivals—as Western European international tourist demand falls—but later increase numbers—as tourism demand from increasingly rich tropical countries grows. In Ireland and the UK, the regional pattern of demand shifts is similar to the international one: tourism shifts north. In Germany, the opposite pattern is observed as the continental interior warms faster than the coast: tourism shifts south.

Plutonium and americium inventories in atmospheric fallout and sediment cores from Blelham Tarn, Cumbria (UK)

The objective of this paper is to report on the results of a study of 238Pu, 239 + 240Pu and 241Am inventories onto Blelham Tarn in Cumbria (UK). The atmospheric fallout inventory was obtained by analysing soil cores and the results are in good agreement with the literature: 101 Bq m(-2) for 239 + 240Pu; 4.5 Bq m(-2) for 238Pu and 37 Bq m(-2) for 241Am. The sediment core inventory for the whole lake is compared to the atmospheric fallout inventory. The sediment activity is 60-80% higher than the estimated fallout activity, showing a catchment area contribution and in particular the stream input.     

The effects of geology and the impact of seasonal correction factors on indoor radon levels: a case study approach

Geology has been highlighted by a number of authors as a key factor in high indoor radon levels. In the light of this, this study examines the application of seasonal correction factors to indoor radon concentrations in the UK. This practice is based on an extensive database gathered by the National Radiological Protection Board over the years (small-scale surveys began in 1976 and continued with a larger scale survey in 1988) and reflects well known seasonal variations observed in indoor radon levels. However, due to the complexity of underlying geology (the UK arguably has the world's most complex solid and surficial geology over the shortest distances) and considerable variations in permeability of underlying materials it is clear that there are a significant number of occurrences where the application of a seasonal correction factor may give rise to over-estimated or under-estimated radon levels. Therefore, the practice of applying a seasonal correction should be one that is undertaken with caution, or not at all. This work is based on case studies taken from the Northamptonshire region and comparisons made to other permeable geologies in the UK.     

Recent trends and developments in dialogue on radioactive waste management: experience from the UK

This paper highlights some recent trends and developments in dialogue on radioactive waste management in the UK. In particular, it focuses on the use of dialogue around options for the management of risk, and describes techniques for stakeholder dialogue in the field of radioactive waste management. The paper summarises past and on-going experience in the UK, and provides an overview of some practical examples from decommissioning of the former reprocessing facility at Dounreay in Scotland. In common with developments and trend in other countries, the UK has moved to a position where there is now widespread recognition that radioactive waste management requires not only sound technical assessment of risk, but also public participation, consultation and stakeholder dialogue on proposed solutions and the associated risks. In fact, the shift of position has arguably been quite pronounced, with formal procedures to identify, clarify and integrate stakeholders' issues and concerns within the decision-making processes. Experience suggests that citizens are capable of engaging with complex technical issues such as radioactive waste. Indeed, the earlier in the decision-making process that public and stakeholder engagement (PSE) occurs--for example, on the consideration of options and alternatives--the greater the chance of reaching a successful outcome that properly reflects the values and opinions of stakeholders. In the UK, the assessment of alternative waste management options is increasingly being addressed through Best Practical Environmental Option (BPEO) studies. Responses to stakeholder engagement processes and experience of conducting BPEO studies emphasise that consultation must be open, transparent, deliberative and inclusive. However, while early consideration of generic approaches and option choices is necessary to generate a climate of openness and understanding, it remains essential to fully engage with local stakeholder and community groups to consider issues associated with proposed developments at a site-specific level. An interesting area where further attention may be warranted is the use in final decision-making of the results from participatory processes such as BPEO studies. Demonstrating clearly that participants' views have influenced decisions appears to be essential for retaining legitimacy and trust, confidence and goodwill.     

Investigating the relationship between air pollution, health and social deprivation in Leeds, UK

This study examines the relationship between air pollution, social deprivation and health in the city of Leeds, UK under a baseline and three distance-based road user charging (RUC) scenarios set at 2 pence, 10 pence and 20 pence/km. Through application of a series of linked models of traffic, emission and pollutant dispersion, air quality was modelled in response to RUC scenarios. The pollutant modelled were NO(2), PM(10), CO, benzene and 1,3-butadiene, though results of NO(2) are used in this study. The RUC scenarios were compared with the 'base' scenario, all set for the year 2005. The RUC initiatives result in the differences in ambient concentrations of NO(2). The study correlates NO(2) concentrations with derived indices of social deprivation and health. The study concludes that positive but weak relationship exists between air quality and social deprivation, and indicates that deprived population groups are disproportionately exposed to higher NO(2) levels. The relationship between air quality and health status of the population is weak. There is a strong relationship between social deprivation and health status of the population. The study concludes that RUC scenarios result in reducing disparity between affluent and deprived populations.     

Modelling future impacts of air pollution using the multi-scale UK Integrated Assessment Model (UKIAM)

Integrated assessment modelling has evolved to support policy development in relation to air pollutants and greenhouse gases by providing integrated simulation tools able to produce quick and realistic representations of emission scenarios and their environmental impacts without the need to re-run complex atmospheric dispersion models. The UK Integrated Assessment Model (UKIAM) has been developed to investigate strategies for reducing UK emissions by bringing together information on projected UK emissions of SO₂, NO_x, NH₃, PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, atmospheric dispersion, criteria for protection of ecosystems, urban air quality and human health, and data on potential abatement measures to reduce emissions, which may subsequently be linked to associated analyses of costs and benefits. We describe the multi-scale model structure ranging from continental to roadside, UK emission sources, atmospheric dispersion of emissions, implementation of abatement measures, integration with European-scale modelling, and environmental impacts. The model generates outputs from a national perspective which are used to evaluate alternative strategies in relation to emissions, deposition patterns, air quality metrics and ecosystem critical load exceedance. We present a selection of scenarios in relation to the 2020 Business-As-Usual projections and identify potential further reductions beyond those currently being planned.     

The costs and benefits of radon remediation programmes in existing homes: case study of action level selection

Radon gas can be present within buildings at sufficiently high levels that it becomes a health risk. Such levels can be reduced, and so radon remediation programmes in the home in UK Affected Areas should result in reduced risks to the population. This paper considers the benefits and costs of the domestic radon remediation programme in Northamptonshire, UK, and considers the implications of the choice of Action Level, in view of the adoption of different levels in many countries. A programme with a higher Action Level will cost less, and target those most at risk, but will be less cost effective. In addition, a higher Action Level leaves a higher residual dose and risk to the remaining population. Such doses are higher than and inconsistent with the radiation dose limits for the general public in the EU Basic Standards Directive.     

Stakeholder involvement facilitates decision making for UK nuclear accident recovery

The importance of major stakeholders participating in the formulation of strategies for maintaining food safety and agricultural production following a nuclear accident has been successfully demonstrated by the UK 'Agriculture and Food Countermeasures Working Group' (AFCWG). The organisation, membership and terms of reference of the group are described. Details are given of the achievements of the AFCWG and its sub-groups, which include agreeing management options that would be included in a recovery handbook for decision-makers in the UK and tackling the disposal of large volumes of contaminated milk, potentially resulting from a nuclear accident.     

Erratum to: Fuelling the English breakfast: hidden energy flows in the Anglo-Danish trade 1870–1913

The 1870–1914 globalization period had profound impacts on the international division of labour, with coal-endowed countries specializing in the production of energy-intensive manufacturing goods and others in the production of agricultural goods. This study analyses the environmental consequences of this specialization, by quantifying the flows of energy and hidden energy embodied in the bilateral trade between the UK, the industrial workshop of the world, and Denmark, a coal-poor country with an agricultural economy. We show that the transformations that occurred in Danish agriculture to meet the growing demand for breakfast foods in the UK required significant quantities of feed and coal. Denmark was a net importer of energy throughout the period and a net importer of hidden energy in 1870. However, by the end of this wave of globalization, Denmark had become a significant net exporter of hidden energy to the UK. This was due both to an increase in its land productivity and to the import of coal, grain and fertilizers from abroad.

     

Trace element pollution records in some UK lake sediments, their history, influence factors and regional differences

Sediment cores were taken from six sites across the UK. Apart from Banbury Reservoir in London, all the other sites are relatively remote lakes. Trace elements Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Sn, As and V, major elements such as Fe, Mn, Ti and Al were analysed, and organic content measured as loss-on-ignition was determined in all of these cores. The result shows that these relatively remote sites have experienced enhanced atmospheric deposition of anthropogenically derived trace elements for over 100 years, and the contamination might start before industrialisation. Trace metal contamination remains the highest level at Banbury Reservoir showing "pollution source" influence. Despite the considerable reduction in atmospheric deposition in recent years, although some of the element concentrations in the surface sediments have declined, they are still much higher than their natural background values. In these sites, trace element pollution records have been influenced by many different factors. Redox condition could affect As distribution in the sediments. Sediment matrix could also affect trace element pollution signal. Apart from direct atmospheric deposition, the distributions of trace elements in the sediments have been affected by forestry activities and catchment erosion, and more contaminated soil in-wash could increase sediment pollution whilst less contaminated soil could dilute sediment pollution. In some sites, data suggest that catchment in-wash is an important source of elements for the lakes.     

英国环境管理的公众参与及其对中国的启示

鼓励公众参与环境管理是当今国际社会重要的政策导向之一。本文从法律赋予公民环境权、环保团体在环境保护中发挥重要。作用、环境影响评价中强调公众参与三方面来介绍英国公众参与环境管理的一些做法，探讨其对中国环境管理中公众参与的启示。     

A process-based model for the partitioning of soluble, suspended particulate and bed sediment fractions of plutonium and caesium in the eastern Irish Sea

A dynamic model of plutonium behaviour in the marine environment has been developed, representing the oxidation state distribution and partitioning of plutonium between the soluble, colloidal, suspended particulate and seabed sediment fractions. With simple re-parameterisation, this model can also be applied to (137)Cs. The model, which is calibrated and validated against field data, has been used to predict concentrations of Pu(alpha) and (137)Cs in both water and seabed sediments from the vicinity of the Sellafield Ltd. reprocessing plant in Cumbria, UK. The model predicts that sediment reworking and transport are the key environmental processes as the Sellafield Pu(alpha) and (137)Cs discharge continues to decline. Inventory calculations generated by the model are consistent with previous estimations. For a hypothetical post-discharge scenario, the concentrations of these radionuclides in both seawater and surface sediments are predicted to decrease sharply, concurrent with a downward vertical migration of the activity retained in sediments.