Collection and recycling of electronic scrap: a worldwide overview and comparison with the Brazilian situation

Recycling and the related issue of sustainable development are increasing in importance around the world. In Brazil, the new National Policy on Solid Wastes has prompted discussion on the future of electronic waste (e-waste). Over the last 10 years, different e-waste collection systems and recycling processes have been applied globally. This paper presents the systems used in different countries and compares the world situation to the current Brazilian reality. To establish a recycling process, it is necessary to organize efficient collection management. The main difficulty associated with the implementation of e-waste recycling processes in Brazil is the collection system, as its efficiency depends not only on the education and cooperation of the people but also on cooperation among industrial waste generators, distributors and the government. Over half a million waste pickers have been reported in Brazil and they are responsible for the success of metal scrap collection in the country. The country also has close to 2400 companies and cooperatives involved in recycling and scrap trading. On the other hand, the collection and recycling of e-waste is still incipient because e-wastes are not seen as valuable in the informal sector. The Brazilian challenge is therefore to organize a system of e-waste management including the informal sector without neglecting environmentally sound management principles.     

Environmental effects of heavy metals derived from the e-waste recycling activities in China: A systematic review

As the world’s leading manufacturing country, China has become the largest dumping ground for e-waste, resulting in serious pollution of heavy metals in China. This study reviews recent studies on environmental effects of heavy metals from the e-waste recycling sites in China, especially Taizhou, Guiyu, and Longtang. The intensive uncontrolled processing of e-waste in China has resulted in the release of large amounts of heavy metals in the local environment, and caused high concentrations of metals to be present in the surrounding air, dust, soils, sediments and plants. Though the pollution of many heavy metals was investigated in the relevant researches, the four kinds of heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Cd and Cr) from e-waste recycling processes attracted more attention. The exceedance of various national and international standards imposed negative effects to the environment, which made the local residents face with the serious heavy metal exposure. In order to protect the environment and human health, there is an urgent need to control and monitor the informal e-waste recycling operations.     

Informal electronic waste recycling: a sector review with special focus on China

Informal recycling is a new and expanding low cost recycling practice in managing Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE or e-waste). It occurs in many developing countries, including China, where current gaps in environmental management, high demand for second-hand electronic appliances and the norm of selling e-waste to individual collectors encourage the growth of a strong informal recycling sector. This paper gathers information on informal e-waste management, takes a look at its particular manifestations in China and identifies some of the main difficulties of the current Chinese approach. Informal e-waste recycling is not only associated with serious environmental and health impacts, but also the supply deficiency of formal recyclers and the safety problems of remanufactured electronic products. Experiences already show that simply prohibiting or competing with the informal collectors and informal recyclers is not an effective solution. New formal e-waste recycling systems should take existing informal sectors into account, and more policies need to be made to improve recycling rates, working conditions and the efficiency of involved informal players. A key issue for China’s e-waste management is how to set up incentives for informal recyclers so as to reduce improper recycling activities and to divert more e-waste flow into the formal recycling sector.     

Electrical and electronic waste management in China: progress and the barriers to overcome.

Serious adverse impacts on the environment and human health from e-waste recycling have occurred in the past and continue to occur in China today, due to a lack of national management strategies. China has made great efforts to face the challenges of the approaching peak increase in the domestic generation of e-waste and the illegal shipment of e-waste from other countries. This study examined recent progress and analysed the main problems associated with this issue in China. It was found that the material and the financial flows of e-waste in China had their own specific characteristics. Nearly 60% of the generated e-wastes were sold to private individual collectors and passed into informal recycling processes. More than 90% of Chinese citizens are reluctant to pay for the recycling of their e-waste. This is due to their traditional understanding that there remained value in these end-of-life products. Regulations concerning e-waste in China have been drafted but their deficiencies are obvious. The extended producer responsibilities (EPR) have been introduced but are not well defined. Eight formal facilities have been planned and are under construction or are in operation along the eastern coast of China but it will be difficult for them to compete with the informal processes for the reasons identified during the study.     

Analysis of recycling structures for e-waste in Vietnam

E-waste management in Vietnam poses real challenges such as the lack of specific e-waste legislation, the strong involvement of “craft villages” and the missing of monitoring data. Many issues (e.g., pollution level, generated waste, health of workers and resident living at recycling sites) lead to the limited access to these craft villages. Thus, there is no comprehensive picture on e-waste management in Vietnam available today. This research focuses on the current situation of e-waste management. Sources of e-waste, collection and treatment in Vietnam are investigated by utilizing most available sources of information (published journals, unpublished works from projects and reports from institutes, ministry) together with the interviewed data from experts, collectors, workers and especially, biggest traders in the field. Based on this information, the processes applied in Vietnam, both in the formal and informal sector, have been analyzed systematically in terms of inputs, outputs, potential emissions and related risks for workers. From these aspects, a comparison in terms of legal frameworks, collection and treatment at both formal and informal sector between Vietnam and other countries in Asian region was undertaken. Thus, major challenges of e-waste management and relatively comprehensive image of e-waste management and treatment in Vietnam have been identified.     

Prioritizing material recovery for end-of-life printed circuit boards

The increasing growth in generation of electronic waste (e-waste) motivates a variety of waste reduction research. Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are an important sub-set of the overall e-waste stream due to the high value of the materials contained within them and potential toxicity. This work explores several environmental and economic metrics for prioritizing the recovery of materials from end-of-life PCBs. A weighted sum model is used to investigate the trade-offs among economic value, energy saving potentials, and eco-toxicity. Results show that given equal weights for these three sustainability criteria gold has the highest recovery priority, followed by copper, palladium, aluminum, tin, lead, platinum, nickel, zinc, and silver. However, recovery priority will change significantly due to variation in the composition of PCBs, choice of ranking metrics, and weighting factors when scoring multiple metrics. These results can be used by waste management decision-makers to quantify the value and environmental savings potential for recycling technology development and infrastructure. They can also be extended by policy-makers to inform possible penalties for land-filling PCBs or exporting to the informal recycling sector. The importance of weighting factors when examining recovery trade-offs, particularly for policies regarding PCB collection and recycling are explored further.     

Potential e-waste generated from households in Indonesia using material flow analysis

Waste of electronic and electrical equipment (e-waste) generated in Indonesia is expected to increase due to high growth of the Indonesian economy and fast development in technology. As Indonesia has not yet had specified criteria on e-waste, in this study, e-waste is defined as any obsolete or unwanted electronic and electrical equipment that is introduced into the recycling and disposal process. The objective of this study is to estimate the e-waste generated in Indonesian households using the method of material flow analysis. The amount of generated e-waste could be used for constructing an e-waste recycling management system in Indonesia. E-waste materials that need to be treated could be known. In this study, some types of equipment, such as television, washing machine, refrigerator, personal computer, and mobile phone, were chosen to be tracers. Using the modified material flow analysis model proposed by Steubing et al. (Waste Manage 30:473–482, 38), the potential e-waste that was generated from households was estimated. The total estimated accumulation of generated e-waste from households in 2015 and 2025 is about 285,000 and 622,000 tonnes, respectively. If a proper recycling system was in place, a new source for valuable materials recovery would be created, as well as protecting the environment and health.     

Networking possibilities for waste recycling in Miyagi prefecture, Japan

Successful case studies for waste recycling in Japan have not been evaluated. The evaluation of economic efficiency and environmental effects were lacking at the time the actual network was established. A waste/resource input/output (I/O) coincidence retrieval system called ZENESYS was developed to examine the usefulness of a waste-exchange network in a nonmanufacturing district. We analyzed data from the Miyagi prefecture, a region without heavy industry. The data were collected from 77 companies using a questionnaire and interviews. A total of 33 possible waste exchange links arose after analysis using ZENESYS. However, these were frail networks that relied heavily on the construction industry. Two waste recycling technologies were selected from the ZENESYS database: reclaiming fuel from waste plastic and making construction materials from bottom ash. Evaluation of the environmental effects and economics of these two technologies showed they were both suitable for the environment, but no profit was made from reclaiming fuel from waste plastics. We concluded that in an area with no heavy industry, it may be difficult to adopt recycling technologies that have high environmental and economic performance. Materials are difficult to circulate among manufacturing industries even if a waste-exchange network exists, and resources are consumed during transportation and recycling.     

废弃电器电子产品回收处理项目建设的若干要点

废弃电器电子产品处理与再利用项目大多已经进入产业建设阶段,需要对于建设规模、处置能力和工艺技术等方面进行深入研究。结合对于产业概况和废弃物特点的研究,就项目建设中的若干要点进行分析,并就冰箱保温层、阴极射线管和废弃印制电路板等特异性处置对象的处理与再利用提出建设性意见。     

Difficulties in applying extended producer responsibility policies in developing countries: case studies in e-waste recycling in China and Thailand

Developing Asian countries have started to apply the principle of extended producer responsibility (EPR) to electronics and electrical equipment waste (e-waste). This policy approach aims to give electronic appliance manufacturers and importers responsibility for the collection and recycling of discarded electronic equipment. China and Thailand have drafted regulations on the recycling of e-waste with common characteristics such as the financial responsibility of producers and subsidies for collection. Although the proposed system is sensible, taking into account the fact that e-waste is a market-traded commodity, there are two major difficulties in implementing EPR in developing countries. First, it may be difficult for governments to collect funds from producers or importers if smuggled, imitation, or small shop-assembled products have a large share in the market. Second, the system creates incentives for collectors and recyclers to over-report the amount of collected e-waste in order to gain extra subsidies from the fund. Other policy measures such as the enforcement of pollution control regulations on informal recyclers, the prevention of smuggling, and the protection of intellectual property rights should accompany EPR policies.     

Sink–float density separation of post-consumer plastics for feedstock recycling

The paper focuses on current mechanical waste processing technologies and out-of-the-box processes linked to the processing of coal and mineral resources, to ensure high-quality feedstock recycling of polyolefin-rich post-consumer plastic fractions. Moreover, the study aims to provide the basis for the technical and economic feasibility of the chemical recycling route of this plastic fraction. When evaluating common mechanical processes, either dry or wet ones, sink–float separation in a cylindrical centrifugal force separator achieves the best results. It combines the advantages of a simple, robust apparatus of low complexity and high capacity with selective separation through the accelerated settling of particles in the centrifugal field. Furthermore, the disconnection of the separation medium feed from the solid input increases residence times. Based on the above findings, a pilot-scale plant was constructed which consists of a centrifugal force separator and a hydro jig for the pre-separation of heavy waste components. Several test campaigns were conducted to separate polyolefins from various waste fractions. Two-stage processing in the centrifugal force separator rendered almost 90 wt% of polyolefin content in the produced lightweight fraction and of polyolefin recovery. One-stage processing, on the other hand, resulted in reduced polyolefin content in the lightweight fraction.

     

Generation amount prediction and material flow analysis of electronic waste: a case study in Beijing, China.

The draft legislation on e-waste prepared by the Chinese national government assigns management responsibility to local governments. It is an urgent task for the municipal government to plan an effective system as soon as possible to divert the e-waste flow from the existing informal e-waste recycling processes. This paper presents a case study implemented in Beijing, the capital city of China, with the purpose of predicting the amount of obsolete equipment for five main kinds of electronic appliances from urban households and to analyse the flow after the end of their useful phase. The amount to be handled was 885,354 units in 2005 and is predicted to double by 2010. Due to consumption growth and the expansion of urbanization it is estimated that the amount will increase to approximate 2,820,000 units by 2020: 70% of the obsolete appliances will be awaiting collection for possible recycling, 7% will be stored at the owner's home for 1 year on average and 4% will be discarded directly and enter the municipal solid waste collecting system. The remaining items will be reused for about 3 years on average after the change of ownership. The results of this study will assist the waste management authorities of Beijing to plan the collecting system and facilities needed for management of e-waste generated in the near future.     

Life cycle assessment of integrated recycling schemes for plastic containers and packaging with consideration of resin composition

Many life cycle assessment studies have evaluated and compared the environmental performance of various technologies for recycling plastic containers and packaging in Japan and other countries. However, no studies have evaluated the combination of recycling technologies in consideration of the resin composition in terms of the quantity of each recycled product so as to maximize their environmental potential. In this study, 27 scenarios of recycling schemes for household waste plastic containers and packaging are developed through integrating a conventional recycling scheme with additional recycling schemes. The conventional recycling scheme involves municipal curbside collection and either the material recycling or feedstock recycling of waste plastics. The additional recycling schemes are feedstock recycling in steel works of the residue from conventional material recycling processes, and corporate voluntary collection and independent material recycling of specific types of plastic trays. Life cycle assessment based on the modeling of recycling processes considering the resin composition in terms of the quantity of each recycled product is applied to evaluate and compare these scenarios from the viewpoints of fossil resource consumption and CO₂ emission. The results show that the environmental loads are reduced in all scenarios including the additional recycling schemes compared with the conventional recycling scheme. However, the independent plastic tray recycling scheme exhibits lower additional environmental savings when the residue recycling scheme is integrated with the conventional material recycling scheme. This is because both additional recycling schemes aim to utilize polystyrene and polyethylene terephthalate, which would otherwise be incinerated as residue from material recycling processes. The evaluation of the environmental loads of plastic recycling with consideration of the resin composition in terms of the quantity of each recycled product makes it possible to investigate recycling schemes that integrate different technologies to maximize their environmental potential.     

The Best-of-2-Worlds philosophy: Developing local dismantling and global infrastructure network for sustainable e-waste treatment in emerging economies

E-waste is a complex waste category containing both hazardous and valuable substances. It demands for a cost-efficient treatment system which simultaneously liberates and refines target fractions in an environmentally sound way. In most developing countries there is a lack of systems covering all steps from disposal until final processing due to limited infrastructure and access to technologies and investment. This paper introduces the ‘Best-of-2-Worlds’ philosophy (Bo2W), which provides a network and pragmatic solution for e-waste treatment in emerging economies. It seeks technical and logistic integration of ‘best’ pre-processing in developing countries to manually dismantle e-waste and ‘best’ end-processing to treat hazardous and complex fractions in international state-of-the-art end-processing facilities. A series of dismantling trials was conducted on waste desktop computers, IT equipment, large and small household appliances, in order to compare the environmental and economic performances of the Bo2W philosophy with other conventional recycling scenarios. The assessment showed that the performance of the Bo2W scenario is more eco-efficient than mechanical separation scenarios and other local treatment solutions. For equipment containing substantial hazardous substances, it demands the assistance from domestic legislation for mandatory removal and safe handling of such fractions together with proper financing to cover the costs. Experience from Bo2W pilot projects in China and India highlighted key societal factors influencing successful implementation. These include market size, informal competitors, availability of national e-waste legislation, formal take-back systems, financing and trust between industrial players. The Bo2W philosophy can serve as a pragmatic and environmentally responsible transition before establishment of end-processing facilities in developing countries is made feasible. The executive models of Bo2W should be flexibly differentiated for various countries by adjusting to local conditions related to operational scale, level of centralized operations, dismantling depth, combination with mechanical processing and optimized logistics to international end-processors.     

Soil contamination by halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from open burning of e-waste in Agbogbloshie (Accra,Ghana)

Detailed composition of chlorinated and brominated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Cl-PAHs and Br-PAHs) generated during informal recycling of e-waste and their toxic relevance are still poorly understood. This study investigated the occurrence of Cl-PAHs and Br-PAHs in surface soil samples from the Agbogbloshie e-waste recycling site (Accra, Ghana) using quantitative gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and comprehensive two-dimensional GC–time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC–ToFMS) profiling. The results of GC–MS analysis showed elevated concentrations in open e-waste burning areas (160–220 and 19–46 ng/g dry weight for Cl- and Br-PAHs, respectively) with substantial contribution from unidentified compounds (respectively, more than 36 and 70%, based on the total areas of potential peaks). Cl- and Br-PAHs from e-waste burning had a distinctive composition dominated by ring–ring compounds. Several homologue groups not monitored with GC–MS were found using GC × GC–ToFMS: PAHs with up to 5Cl or 3Br, mixed halogenated PAHs and chlorinated methylPAHs. The dioxin-like toxic equivalents of the identified Cl-/Br-PAHs in soils, estimated from their in vitro AhR agonist potencies relative to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, were much lower than the range reported for chlorinated and brominated dioxins. However, the toxicity of the unidentified halogenated PAHs remained unclear.     

我国电子废物回收处理产业政策及机遇与挑战分析

针对近年我国频繁出台的电子废物回收处理产业政策,系统论述了其发展脉络,并从循环经济角度出发,分析了我国电子废物产业发展的主体思路,同时还对我国电子废物回收处理产业发展机遇与存在的问题进行剖析,对如何稳定企业的电子废物来源、提升产业技术水平及降低企业运营成本进行建议性分析。     

Chemical depolymerisation of PET complex waste: hydrolysis vs. glycolysis

The huge increase in the generation of post-consumer plastic waste has produced a growing interest in eco-efficient strategies and technologies for their appropriate management and recycling. In response to this, PROQUIPOL Project is focused on developing, optimizing and adapting feedstock recycling technologies as an alternative for management for the treatment of complex plastic waste. Among the different plastic wastes studied, PROQUIPOL Project is working on providing a suitable treatment to the highly colored and complex multilayered post-consumer waste fractions of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) by chemical depolymerisation methods. Glycolysis and alkali hydrolysis processes have been studied with the aim of promoting the transformation of PET into the bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate monomer and terephthalic acid, respectively. In both cases operational conditions such as temperature, reaction time, catalyst to PET rate and solvent to PET rate have been considered to optimize product yield, achieving values near to 90 % and monomer purities over 95 % in both processes. This paper presents results obtained for each treatment as well as a simplified comparison of technical, economic and environmental issues.     

Recycling of plastic packaging waste in Bandung City,Indonesia

Economic growth, changing consumption and production patterns are resulting in rapid increase in the generation of plastic wastes, including plastic packaging waste (PPW). A variety of PPW is identified in the municipal solid waste (MSW) stream. In this paper, quantity and composition of PPW at generators (residential and nonresidential sectors) and at the informal sector of waste recycling were measured, and accordingly the flow of PPW within Bandung City, Indonesia was analyzed. Though the generation rate per capita is not so high (25.1 g per day), total PPW generated by 2.3 million inhabitants in Bandung becomes 58.4 tonnes per day (3.76 % of total MSW generated). Due to lack of integrated MSW management, most of PPW is neither collected properly nor disposed of in appropriate manner by the municipality. Collection of valuable wastes including PPW is done predominantly by the informal sector without regard to health and safety. It is predicted that total PPW recycled by various informal waste recycling players like scavengers, junkmen, intermediates, and dealers is 27.5 tonnes per day (64.6 % of total PPW generated). Interviews regarding the existing handling methods and incentives preferred by generators to increase the recycling rate are also presented.     

Minimizing waste polymers in space

Waste polymers, essentially plastic packages, make up a significant fraction of solid wastes in a crewed space habitat. While logistic limitations preclude consideration of recovery/recycling technologies that have proven viable on Earth, the challenge in space is to provide materials and processes that minimize the volume of stored waste plastics and which allow recovery at the completion of a mission.