Facing Hazardous Matter in Atmospheric Particles with NanoSIMS (2 pp)

Background, Aim and Scope Current scientific studies and evaluations clearly show that an increase of urban dust loads, alone or combined with other pollutants und certain meteorological conditions lead to different significant health effects. Premature death, increased hospital admissions and increased respiratory symptoms and diseases as well as decreased lung function can be observed in combination with high pollutant levels. Sensitive groups like elderly people or children and persons with cardiopulmonary diseases such as asthma are more strongly affected. Because of the direct contact between fine particles and lung tissue more information concerning the surface structure (mapping of toxic elements) is required. Materials and Methods: The NanoSims50 ion microprobe images the element composition at the surface of sub-micrometer air dust particles and documents hot spots of toxic elements as a possible threat for human health. Results: The atmospheric fine dust consists of a complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds. Heavy metals are fixed on airborn particles in the form of hot spots in a nanometer scale. From a sanitary point of view, the hot spots consisting of toxic elements are particularly relevant as they react directly with the lung tissues. Discussion: To what extent particles can penetrate the various areas of the lungs and be deposited there depends on the one hand on their physical characteristics and on the other on breathing patterns and the anatomy of the lung, which is subject to change as the result of growth, ageing or illness. Once inhaled, some particles can reach the pulmonary alveoli and thus directly expose the lung tissues to toxic elements. Conclusions: Especially the mapping of toxic arsenic or heavy metals like copper on the dust particles shows local hot spots of pollution in the dimension of only 50 nanometers. Recommendations and Perspectives: Imaging of elements in atmospheric particles with NanoSIMS will help to identify the material sources.     

The conservation status and trends of raptors and owls in Europe

To conserve biodiversity efficiently, an international framework is needed to ensure that national priorities take into account regional and global priorities. BirdLife International has published five comprehensive assessments of the global status of the world's birds and two evaluations of the status of Europe's birds at a continental level. This paper analyzes the results of these assessments in relation to Europe's 56 species of raptors and owls, 18% of which are of global conservation concern, and 64% of which have an unfavorable conservation status in Europe. The European Union (EU) holds half of the total estimated European breeding population of raptors and owls, and European Russia supports another third, but every European country has a responsibility for at least two species of European conservation concern. During the 1990s, more raptors increased than decreased in most EU member states, but the opposite was true in eastern Europe, where many of the most threatened species are concentrated. Given the popularity of these species with the public, and the political commitment to halt the loss of biodiversity by 2010, much more action is needed to monitor and conserve birds of prey.     

Using PM10 geochemical maps for defining the origin of atmospheric pollution in Andalusia (Southern Spain)

In this work we present a detailed study of atmospheric PM₁₀ pollution in Andalusia (Southern Spain) based on geochemical maps. The study includes determination of PM₁₀ levels and bulk chemical composition with samples from 17 representative monitoring stations (rural, urban background, traffic hot spot, and urban zones with industrial influence) during 2007. The knowledge of background levels and concentrations of relevant chemical compounds and elements allows the quantification of the main sources of pollution in relevant cities and sites of ecological interest.In comparison to other stations in Spain and mainland Europe, PM₁₀ in Andalusia is characterized by high levels of crustal matter and secondary inorganic components (SIC). This has been attributed to the following causes: 1) High road traffic and industrial emissions, 2) High frequency of North African air mass outbreaks contributing between 3 and 4 μg m^?3 in western Andalusia and 4–7 μg m^?3 in eastern Andalusia, and 3) Climate factors such as low rainfall, dry soils favouring resuspension, and high photochemical activity.Atmospheric particulate matter in urban areas located in the vicinity of industrial estates is enriched in secondary inorganic compounds and metals. Three main hot spots have been identified according their high trace element concentrations: Huelva (As, Cu, Zn, Se, and Bi), Strait of Gibraltar (V, Ni, Cr, and Co) and Bailén (V and Ni). The transport of pollutants from cities and industrial estates to areas of ecological interest (e.g. Doñana National Park) has been found to cause the increase in background levels in a number of trace elements (e.g. As) in the air. An important outcome of this study is that geochemical maps of atmospheric matter are a powerful tool for illustrating spatial variation patterns of geochemical components and identifying specific pollution hot spots.     

On purpose in science,conservation and government. The functional integrity of the earth is at issue not biodiversity

The objectives of conservation have been focused ever more intensively for two decades on the preservation of "biodiversity." Emphasis has been on the losses of species through extinction. The cure has been the establishment of parks and reserves to protect "hot spots," especially in the tropics, where the diversity of species is high. The efforts in preservation have often extended to the development of connecting links among reserves to allow movements among them. The approach has been codified in law in the form of the Endangered Species Act in the United States and the Biodiversity Treaty, both of which address the issue species by species and each of which has obvious weaknesses. Such efforts may be appropriate but they are totally inadequate as the sum of activities in conservation in a world of 6 billion people with exploding technologies for exploiting virtually all of the earth for immediate human benefit. The biosphere is decaying rapidly as a habitat for all life, including people, not because of the extinction of species, but because of the progressive impoverishment of natural communities through human-induced chronic disruption that is now global and ubiquitous. The improverishment leads to progressive environmental dysfunction that is cumulative, but only in its later stages leads to extinction of species. Long before extinction becomes important, genetically distinct, local ecotypes are lost and the natural communities in which they were developed become improverished and dysfunctional. The most conspicuous disruption is that of climate, a global change in the environment of every ecosystem. The most elaborate and carefully interlinked array of natural reserves will succumb as climate is moved out from under them... and biodiversity will suffer the very extinctions the parks were established to avoid. But long before that, the human environment will suffer conspicuous and progressive impoverishment. The objective of conservation is the preservation of the integrity of function of landscapes (and waterbodies). Emphasis falls on forests in the normally naturally forested parts of the earth because forests are so large in area globally and have such a large influence on virtually every aspect of environment. Functional integrity requires structural integrity over 85% or more of the naturally forested zone in most areas. It also requires objective measurement and definition by the scientific community. Suddenly, conservation has become, not the preservation of biodiversity, honorable as that may be, but the preservation of the functional integrity of the human environment. That purpose is the central purpose that we assign to the governments that we establish in democracies to define and defend the public interest. It is past time for the scientific and conservation communities to recognize the urgency of this transition, join in defining competent new objectives for conservation, and to convey to the public the urgency of the need for governmental responsibility in protecting the public interest in a habitable biosphere.     

Nature conservation in Central and Eastern Europe with a special emphasis on the Carpathian Mountains

The natural environment of the Carpathian Mountains is one of the richest in Europe in terms of species richness and ecological value. In general, these mountains are well preserved and constitute an important part of Europe's nature resources. The Carpathian area, although divided by political and ethnic frontiers, provides an excellent example of the possibility of protection and conservation of natural and cultural heritage. Natural or seminatural forest ecosystems are the most valuable ecosystems together with man-made meadows and pastures. It is expected that the formerly diverse approaches to nature protection will become unified as the Carpathian countries are incorporated into the European Union. In this paper the various forms of nature protection in the individual Carpathian countries (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine and Romania) are described.     

Critical remarks on the use of terrestrial moss (Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi) for monitoring of airborne pollution

Duplicate samples of the two terrestrial moss species Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi, which are widely used to monitor airborne heavy metal pollution, have been collected from eight catchments spread over a 1,500,000 km2 area in northern Europe. These were analysed for a total of 38 elements by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry and cold vapour-atomic absorption spectometry techniques. Results show that the moss species can be combined without interspecies calibration for regional mapping purposes. For the majority of elements the observed within-catchment variation is large--big composite samples over a large area should thus be collected when moss is to be used for monitoring purposes. For the majority of elements the input of dust governs moss chemistry. For a reliable 'contamination' signal over a sizeable area a major source is needed. Some elements show a dependence on climate/vegetation zone. In coastal areas the input of marine aerosols will alter the chemical signal obtained from moss samples.     

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme: identifying chemical risks to top predators in Britain

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) is a long term (>40 y), UK-wide, exposure monitoring scheme that determines the concentration of selected pesticides and pollutants in the livers and eggs of predatory birds. This paper describes how the PBMS works, and in particular highlights some of the key scientific and policy drivers for monitoring contaminants in predatory birds and describes the specific aims, scope, and methods of the PBMS. We also present previously unpublished data that illustrates how the PBMS has been used to demonstrate the success of mitigation measures in reversing chemical-mediated impacts; identify and evaluate chemical threats to species of high conservation value; and finally to inform and refine monitoring methodologies. In addition, we discuss how such schemes can also address wider conservation needs.     

Quantification of highway vehicle emissions hot spots based upon on-board measurements

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate a methodology for quantification of high emissions hot spots along roadways based upon real-world, on-road vehicle emissions measurements. An emissions hot spot is defined as a fixed location along a corridor in which the peak emissions are statistically significantly greater by more than a factor of 2 than the average emissions for free-flow or near free-flow conditions on the corridor. A portable instrument was used to measure on-road tailpipe emissions of carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, hydrocarbons, and carbon dioxide on a second-by-second basis during actual driving. Measurements were made for seven vehicles deployed on two primary arterial corridors. The ratio of average emissions at hot spots to the average emissions observed during a trip was as high as 25 for carbon monoxide, 5 for nitric oxide, and 3 for hydrocarbons. The relationships between hot spots and explanatory variables were investigated using graphical and statistical methods. Average speed, average acceleration, standard deviation of speed, percent of time spent in cruise mode, minimum speed, maximum acceleration, and maximum power have statistically significant associations with vehicle emissions and influence emissions hot spots. For example, stop-and-go traffic conditions that result in sudden changes in speed, and traffic patterns with high accelerations, are shown to generate hot spots. The implications of this work for future model development and applications to environmental management are discussed.     

Spatial variability of metallic and organic contamination of anguilliform fish in New Caledonia

New Caledonia is one of the main hot spots of biodiversity on the planet. Large amounts of contaminants are discharged into the lagoon as a result of increasing anthropogenic activities such as intense mining, urbanization, and industrialization. Concentrations of 14 trace elements and 26 persistent organic pollutants (POPs: PCBs and pesticides) were measured in the muscles of two anguilliform fish species, over a coast to barrier reef gradient in two lagoon areas differently exposed to anthropic disturbances. This study emphasizes the high trace element contamination status of anguilliform fish and also highlights slight but perceptible organic pollution. The contamination extends throughout the lagoon, from coast to barrier reef, even in areas remote from emission points. High levels of trace elements, especially those linked to mining activities (i.e., Co, Cr, Fe, Mn, and Ni), were detected in coastal sites. Furthermore, the large dispersion of most POPs throughout the entire lagoon poses the question of their potential toxicity on marine organisms from numerous habitats. Our results underline the need for long-term monitoring of various contaminants over large spatial and time scales.     

Effect of local and long-range transport emissions on the elemental composition of PM10–2.5 and PM2.5 in Beirut

The elemental composition of PM_10−2.5 and PM_2.5 were studied in winter, summer, stormy and non-stormy dates during a period extending from February 2004 till January 2005, in a populated area of Beirut. Results of PIXE analysis and enrichment factor (E.F.) calculation, using Si as a reference of crustal material, showed that crustal elements (E.F.<10) like Si, Ca, K, Ti, Mn and Fe were more abundant in PM_10−2.5 while enriched elements (E.F.>10) like S, Cu, Zn and Pb predominated in PM_2.5. In PM_10−2.5, concentrations of crustal elements increased during stormy episodes, all time high Ca concentrations were due to the abundance of calcite and limestone rocks in Lebanon, and increased Cl levels correlated with marine air masses. In PM_2.5, sulfur concentrations were more prominent in the summer due to the enhancement of photochemical reactions. Sources of sulfur were attributed to local, sea-water and long-range transport from Eastern Europe, with the latter being the most predominate. Anthropogenic elements like Cu and Zn were generated from worn brakes and tires in high traffic density area and spikes of Pb were directly linked to a southerly wind originated from Egypt and/or Israel as determined by the air trajectory HYSPLIT model. In brief, elemental variations depended on the regional variability of the transport pattern and the different removal rates of aerosols.     

Persistent organochlorine levels in six prey species of the gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus in Iceland

Our previous investigations have revealed very high levels of organochlorines (OCs) in the Icelandic gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus, a resident top predator. We now examine six potential prey species of birds, both resident and migratory, in order to elucidate the most likely route of the OCs to the gyrfalcon. The ptarmigan Lagopus mutus, the most important prey of the gyrfalcon, contained very low levels of OCs. Bioaccumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and DDTs in mallards Anas platyrhynchos, tufted ducks Aythya fuligula, golden plovers Pluvialis apricaria, purple sandpipers Calidris maritima, and black guillemots Cepphus grylle reflected their position in the foodchain. The differences in OC-levels seem nevertheless too high just to reflect the different food-chain levels of these species in Iceland. The winter grounds of the migratory golden plovers and tufted ducks appear to be more contaminated than the Icelandic terrestrial habitat of ptarmigans or the freshwater habitat as reflected in mallards, both resident species. However, spending the winter on the coast in Iceland, results in high levels of contaminants in purple sandpipers and black guillemots. Our results indicate OC contamination of the marine ecosystem in Iceland while the terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems are little affected. It is postulated that gyrfalcons receive the major part of the observed contamination from prey other than ptarmigan, especially birds associated with the marine ecosystem and also from migratory birds.     

Sulphur in the arctic environment (2): results of multi-medium regional mapping.

The regional distribution patterns of S in terrestrial moss and in the O-, B-, and C-horizon of podzols have been studied in a 188,000 km2 area in Arctic Europe with both, large natural (marine aerosols) and anthropogenic gradients of S-input. Although the existence of a pollution source is visible in the S-maps for moss, the S-deposition gradient is not depicted. The concentration of S in moss is not at all influenced by input of marine aerosols. In contrast, the O-horizon of podzols shows a coastal enrichment of S but does not reflect the anthropogenic input. Even the coastal pattern visible in the map of S in the O-horizon is, however, not linked to the input of SO4(2-) via sea spray but is rather caused by low litter decomposition rates due to low temperature, increasing total S and decreasing mobile S near coast. S-concentrations as observed in the deeper soil horizons are only locally influenced by both anthropogenic and marine input of S. These results suggest that in undisturbed terrestrial environments no mechanism exists for enriching an additional input of S from anthropogenic or natural sources. A very high local variability in the four sample materials points to small-scale local processes being most important for the observed S-concentrations.     

Concentrations of trace elements in tissues of loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) from the Tyrrhenian and the Ionian coastlines (Calabria,Italy)

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Toxic trace elements from both, natural and anthropogenic origin, pose a threat to aquatic environments and marine wildlife due to their long-range...     

Assessment of metal pollution based on multivariate statistical modeling of 'hot spot' sediments from the Black Sea

The paper deals with application of different statistical methods like cluster and principal components analysis (PCA), partial least squares (PLSs) modeling. These approaches are an efficient tool in achieving better understanding about the contamination of two gulf regions in Black Sea. As objects of the study, a collection of marine sediment samples from Varna and Bourgas "hot spots" gulf areas are used. In the present case the use of cluster and PCA make it possible to separate three zones of the marine environment with different levels of pollution by interpretation of the sediment analysis (Bourgas gulf, Varna gulf and lake buffer zone). Further, the extraction of four latent factors offers a specific interpretation of the possible pollution sources and separates natural from anthropogenic factors, the latter originating from contamination by chemical, oil refinery and steel-work enterprises. Finally, the PLSs modeling gives a better opportunity in predicting contaminant concentration on tracer (or tracers) element as compared to the one-dimensional approach of the baseline models. The results of the study are important not only in local aspect as they allow quick response in finding solutions and decision making but also in broader sense as a useful environmetrical methodology.     

Soil organic matter from pioneer species and its implications to phytostabilization of mined sites in the Sierra de Cartagena (Spain)

Pioneer plant species were observed growing on mined areas despite unfavourable conditions such as extreme pH, high salinity and phytotoxic levels of several elements. This study evaluated the contribution of pioneer species to the accumulation of soil organic matter (SOM). We collected 51 samples from 17 non-vegetated, natural and pioneer-vegetated sites in five highly saline mined areas in the Sierra de Cartagena (Spain). The composition of SOM was determined using total C, N and S elemental anlayzer, pyrolysis and solid state (13)C NMR spectroscopy. Results showed that pioneer species like Lygeum spartum had contributed approximately 11 kg SOM kg(-1) soil into the Balsa Rosa sites since 1991; it will take approximately 120 years of continuous growth for this plant to increase the SOM level comparable to natural site. In the Portman Bay area, Sarconia ramosissima and Phragmites australis can contribute SOM equivalent to present day SOM in natural sites in the next 30 years. Low quality SOM (C/N>20) deposited by pioneer plants was dominated by lignin-derived organic compounds such as phenols, guaiacols, syringols and aromatics while polyssacharides and alkyls were the major components in high quality SOM (C/N<20). The addition of SOM to mine wastes is similar to early stages of soil formation and with time, we expect the formation of well-developed Ah horizon on the surface of mine wastes. The presence of P. australis on several sites makes it a very good candidate for successful revegetation of hostile conditions found in many mined sites.     

In search for a compromise between biodiversity conservation and human health protection in restoration of fly ash deposits: effect of anti-dust treatments on five groups of arthropods

Recently, fly ash deposits have been revealed as a secondary refuge of critically endangered arthropods specialised on aeolian sands in Central Europe. Simultaneously, these anthropogenic habitats are well known for their negative impact on human health and the surrounding environment. The overwhelming majority of these risks are caused by wind erosion, the substantial decreasing of which is thus necessary. But, any effects of anti-dust treatments on endangered arthropods have never been studied. We surveyed communities of five arthropod groups (wild bees and wasps, leafhoppers, spiders, hoverflies and orthopteroid insects) colonising three fly ash deposits in the western Czech Republic. We focused on two different anti-dust treatments (~70 and 100 % cover of fly ash by barren soil) and their comparison with a control of bare fly ash. Altogether, we recorded 495 species, including 132 nationally threatened species (eight of them were considered to be extinct in the country) and/or 30 species strictly specialised to drift sands. Bees and wasps and leafhoppers contained the overwhelming majority of species of the highest conservation interest; a few other important records were also in spiders and orthopteroids. Total soil cover depleted the unique environment of fly ash and thus destroyed the high conservation potential of the deposits. On the other hand, partial coverage (with ~30 % of bare fly ash) still offered habitats for many of the most threatened species, as we showed by both regression and multivariate analyses, with a decrease of wind erosion. This topic still needs much more research interest, but we consider mosaic-like preservation of smaller spots of fly ash as one of the possible compromises between biodiversity and human health.     

Willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) as a biomonitor of environmental metal levels in Norway

The purpose of this study was to examine the potential of a native wild bird, Lagopus lagopus, as a monitor of environmental metal levels, in particular with respect to the influence of atmospheric deposition of metals from long-range transport. Specimens of willow ptarmigan were collected from ten different locations in Norway. The concentrations of cadmium, zinc and copper were determined in kidneys of birds from all sites. Mean cadmium levels in adult ptarmigan kidney ranged from 6.6 to 48.5 microg g(-1) (wet weight), with individual concentrations up to 71.0 microg g(-1). These are among the highest cadmium levels reported in wild birds. The kidneys of adult birds contained 3-10 times higher cadmium levels than kidneys from juvenile birds in the same collection area, and most of the high cadmium levels probably reflect natural exposure, rather than atmospheric pollution. Concentrations of elements in kidney tissues were highly correlated with each other.     

Using Vessel Monitoring System Data to Improve Systematic Conservation Planning of a Multiple-Use Marine Protected Area,the Kosterhavet National Park (Sweden)

When spatial fishing data is fed into systematic conservation planning processes the cost to a fishery could be ensured to be minimal in the zoning of marine protected areas. We used vessel monitoring system (VMS) data to map the distribution of prawn trawling and calculate fishing intensity for 1-ha grid cells, in the Kosterhavet National Park (Sweden). We then used the software Marxan to generate cost-efficient reserve networks that represented every biotope in the Park. We asked what were the potential gains and losses in terms of fishing effort and species conservation of different planning scenarios. Given a conservation target of 10 % representation of each biotope, the fishery need not lose more than 20 % of its fishing grounds to give way to cost-efficient conservation of benthic diversity. No additional reserved area was needed to achieve conservation targets while minimizing fishing costs. We discuss the benefits of using VMS data for conservation planning.     

Differentiating the effects of climate and land use change on European biodiversity: A scenario analysis

Current observed as well as projected changes in biodiversity are the result of multiple interacting factors, with land use and climate change often marked as most important drivers. We aimed to disentangle the separate impacts of these two for sets of vascular plant, bird, butterfly and dragonfly species listed as characteristic for European dry grasslands and wetlands, two habitats of high and threatened biodiversity. We combined articulations of the four frequently used SRES climate scenarios and associated land use change projections for 2030, and assessed their impact on population trends in species (i.e. whether they would probably be declining, stable or increasing). We used the BIOSCORE database tool, which allows assessment of the effects of a range of environmental pressures including climate change as well as land use change. We updated the species lists included in this tool for our two habitat types. We projected species change for two spatial scales: the EU27 covering most of Europe, and the more restricted biogeographic region of ‘Continental Europe’. Other environmental pressures modelled for the four scenarios than land use and climate change generally did not explain a significant part of the variance in species richness change. Changes in characteristic bird and dragonfly species were least pronounced. Land use change was the most important driver for vascular plants in both habitats and spatial scales, leading to a decline in 50–100% of the species included, whereas climate change was more important for wetland dragonflies and birds (40–50 %). Patterns of species decline were similar in continental Europe and the EU27 for wetlands but differed for dry grasslands, where a substantially lower proportion of butterflies and birds declined in continental Europe, and 50 % of bird species increased, probably linked to a projected increase in semi-natural vegetation. In line with the literature using climate envelope models, we found little divergence among the four scenarios. Our findings suggest targeted policies depending on habitat and species group. These are, for dry grasslands, to reduce land use change or its effects and to enhance connectivity, and for wetlands to mitigate climate change effects.     

The Links Between Resource Dependency and Attitude of Commercial Fishers to Coral Reef Conservation in the Red Sea

The imperative to further constrain extractive uses of natural resources will strengthen as resources degrade through over-use or exposure to climate changes. Here, we explore an approach to increase the support for marine conservation among coral reef fishers. We explore the proposition that resource dependency in the Egyptian Red Sea can act as a barrier to conservation. We administered face-to-face surveys to 49% of the fishing industry to: (i) identify the level of compliance to the local marine protected area (MPA), (ii) assess the level of dependency on marine resources in the region and (iii) examine the relationship between resource dependency and conservation attitudes. Only 11.4% of fishers were aware of the MPA. Fishers were mostly limited in their social flexibility and livelihood options. Results suggest that resource dependency is highly and negatively correlated with conservation attitudes suggesting that management efforts need to seriously focus on reducing dependency if conservation goals are to be met.