安徽省城市地表灰尘重金属污染及人体健康风险评价

本研究收集了安徽省合肥、蚌埠、芜湖、淮南、安庆、铜陵和宿州7个城市地表灰尘重金属含量的数据,分别采用地累积指数法、美国环境保护署(USEPA)人体健康风险评价法对地表灰尘重金属污染程度和人体健康风险水平进行评价。结果表明,所研究的安徽省7个城市地表灰尘中Pb、Cd、Cr、Zn和Cu平均含量分别为123.73±81.70、5.34±6.54、96.40±37.36、941.03±1 007.39和269.77±441.59 mg/kg,均高于安徽省土壤环境背景值。地累积指数法评价结果显示,安徽省城市地表灰尘Cr为轻度污染, Pb为中度污染,Zn为重度污染,Cd和Cu为严重污染。人体健康风险评价结果表明,安徽省城市地表灰尘重金属对儿童存在着明显的非致癌健康风险,对成人产生的非致癌健康风险不明显。重金属Cd和Cr致癌风险在安全范围内,不会对人群产生明显的致癌效应。手-口摄入是人体暴露于地表灰尘产生健康风险的主要途径,在同一暴露途径下儿童所遭遇的健康风险高于成人,儿童更容易受到地表灰尘中污染物的危害。     

基于盲数理论的城市表土与灰尘重金属污染健康风险评价模型

基于环境健康风险评价系统多种不确定性共存的特点,将盲数引入健康风险评价中,构建了城市表土和灰尘重金属污染环境健康风险评价盲数模型,并提出了风险等级判别模式.同时,选取Pb、Zn、Cr、As、Cu、Ni和Cd为评价因子,将上述模型和方法应用于铜陵市表土和灰尘重金属污染健康风险评价,得到了致癌和非致癌风险的各种可能值及其相应的可信度.结果表明,7种重金属非致癌总风险盲数均值高达2.036,远超过安全阈值1.0;特别是As,仅由手-口直接摄取途径导致的非致癌风险均值就达1.438.总体上,7种重金属的非致癌风险均值大小排序为:As＞Cr＞Pb＞Cu＞Cd＞Ni＞Zn.就致癌风险来看,As经由手-口直接摄取途径的致癌风险相对最大,其均值为5.195 ×10-4,已远超过美国环保局(USEPA)推荐值上限1.0×10-4;皮肤接触途径的致癌风险相对也很高,均值为3.964×10-5,接近国际防辐射委员会(ICRP)推荐的最大可接受风险值5.0×10-5.     

长春市城区近地表灰尘重金属健康风险评价

为评价长春市城区近地表灰尘中重属污染特征及其健康风险,采用网格化均匀布点系统采集了232件长春市城区近地表(约1.5m)灰尘样品,分别采用X荧光光谱法(XRF)、原子荧光光度法(AFS)和石墨炉原子吸收光谱法(GF-AAS)测定了近地表灰尘中Cu、Pb、Zn、Cr、As、Hg和Cd含量.结果表明:城市近地表灰尘中As、Cd、Cr、Cu、Hg、Pb和Zn的平均含量分别为23.26、0.62、94.53、68.41、0.24、93.63和416.71mg/kg,且其变化范围较大,同时均显著高于研究区表层土壤重金属含量,已受到一定程度重金属污染.健康风险评价结果表明,儿童暴露剂量均明显高于成年人暴露剂量,是成人暴露剂量的7.3倍(As为7.9倍),经消化道摄入暴露是人体城市灰尘重金属暴露的最主要途径,其次是皮肤接触暴露;从各元素的健康风险指数(HI)来看,As的健康风险最高,其次依次为Cr、Pb、Cu、Zn、Cd和Hg;非致癌总风险指数平均值分别为1.11(儿童)和0.14(成人),表明长春市城区近地表灰尘金属污染已对儿童造成了潜在的健康风险,As对总风险的贡献最大.叠加后的致癌总风险指数平均值为6.35×10-5,超过了EPA的建议值,As污染是主要风险因素,但长春市城区近地表灰尘由重金属引起的致癌风险总体上尚可接受,不会对当地居民的身体健康产生较大危害,但应加强防范.     

福州市公交枢纽站地表灰尘重金属含量、来源及其健康风险评价

城市地表灰尘中的重金属已成为城市环境和人类健康最重要的威胁之一. 为评价地表灰尘重金属的污染水平,研究了福州市公交枢纽站地表灰尘中的重金属质量分数、来源及其可能产生的健康风险. 结果表明:福州市公交枢纽站地表灰尘中w(Cr)、w(Cu)、w(Zn)和w(Cd)分别是福州市城区土壤的2.74、4.21、4.01和4.68倍. 灰尘中重金属Co、Ni和Mn主要来源于城市土壤,Cd、Pb和Cu来源于交通运输过程,Cr来源于城市土壤和交通运输,Zn主要来源于交通运输、城市生活污染和工业活动等复合污染源. 不同暴露途径的重金属暴露剂量和非致癌风险大小排序为消化道>皮肤接触>呼吸吸入. 地表灰尘中重金属非致癌总风险为儿童高于成人. 致癌重金属的暴露风险为Cd>Ni>Cr. 城市公交枢纽站地表灰尘中重金属污染受交通运输影响较大.      

上海地表灰尘重金属污染的健康风险评价

对上海中心城区文教区、居民区和城市广场等儿童日常活动区域代表样点进行定期采样,共采集48个地表灰尘样品,应用美国EPA人体暴露风险评价方法对地表灰尘重金属进行健康风险评价.结果表明,研究区域地表灰尘重金属污染较为严重,Zn、Pb、Cu和Cd平均值分别为上海市土壤背景值的6~8倍,Cr和Ni超出2~3倍.暴露模型计算表明,重金属慢性每日平均暴露量为手-口接触摄入量＞皮肤吸收量＞吸入空气量,经手-口接触行为直接摄入是儿童地表灰尘暴露风险的主要途径.重金属非致癌风险Pb＞Cr＞Ni＞Cu＞Zn＞Cd,均小于非致癌风险阈值1,对人体不会造成健康危害;致癌重金属致癌风险Cr＞Ni＞Cd,均低于癌症风险阈值,表明不具有致癌风险.     

铜陵市区表土与灰尘重金属污染健康风险评估

以典型有色金属矿山城市铜陵市为对象,从工业用地、居住用地、商贸用地、文教用地、交通用地和城市广场等6种主要用地类型中,选择64个采样点位,采集表土和不透水地面灰尘样.在对Pb、Cu、Cr、Zn、Ni、As和Cd含量分析测试的基础上,利用美国国家环保局(US EPA)推荐的健康风险评价模型,就儿童和成人群体在不同功能用地、不同暴露途径下的重金属致癌和非致癌风险进行分析和评估,并对表土与灰尘的健康风险效应进行比较.结果表明:铜陵市表土与灰尘重金属含量显著高于该市土壤背景值,意味着铜陵城区土壤和地表灰尘已遭受较为严重的重金属污染;重金属Cr、Ni、As和Cd的致癌风险均值分别为4.30′10-7、7.18′10-9、4.26′10-4和7.58′10-8,不同功能用地的致癌风险均显著超过US EPA推荐的可接受风险阈值范围10-6~10-4和国际辐射防护委员会(ICRP)推荐的最大可接受风险值5.0′10-5;表土与灰尘的儿童非致癌风险分别高达5.20和16.58,灰尘对成人的非致癌风险达2.80,都远高于安全阈值1.0,表明铜陵市表土与地表灰尘已对公众身体健康构成危害;主导致癌与非致癌风险效应的主要污染因子是As,主要暴露途径是手-口摄入途径.     

宣威街道尘中重金属的分布特征及其健康风险评估

云南肺癌高发区(宣威)的环境污染与人群健康之间的关系一直是环境科学研究领域的热点之一.本研究采集了宣威市电厂及其上风向地区和下风向地区的街道灰尘,利用ICP-MS对样品中的重金属元素进行了分析;利用富集因子法对样品中的重金属污染及来源进行探究;并运用美国环境保护署(US EPA)发布的人体暴露风险评价方法对样品中重金属元素的健康风险进行了评估.结果表明,宣威街道尘土中Al、V、Ni、Co、Zn和Cd等金属元素的质量浓度明显呈"电厂来宾倘塘"的特征;V、Cd、Cr、Cu、Mn、Co、Ni、Pb、As和Zn等10种重金属的含量明显高于云南省土壤背景值,显示宣威市地表灰尘重金属污染较为严重;宣威街道中Cr、Cu、Zn、Pb、As和Cd等重金属主要来源于电厂排放的燃煤颗粒物.健康风险评估的结果表明,宣威街道灰尘中10种重金属元素对儿童的非致癌风险大于成人,手-口摄入是灰尘重金属暴露的主要途径;宣威街道尘土中Cd、Cr、Ni、Co和As等5种致癌重金属存在潜在的致癌风险;Cr是威胁儿童健康的主要污染因子.     

新疆昌吉市地表灰尘重金属污染及潜在健康风险

为探析新疆昌吉市地表灰尘重金属污染现状与健康风险,作者从昌吉市建成区采集了52个地表灰尘样品,测定其中Ni、Cd、Cu、Pb、As和Hg等6种重金属元素含量,基于地累积指数(I_(geo))和US EPA健康风险评价模型,对地表灰尘重金属污染态势及潜在健康风险进行评价。结果表明,昌吉市地表灰尘中Ni、Cd、Cu、Pb、As和Hg等6种重金元素含量的平均值分别为26.35、0.21、59.33、46.83、9.92和0.05 mg/kg,依次为新疆土壤背景值的0.99、1.71、2.22、2.41、0.89和2.76倍;灰尘中Hg、Pb、Cu和Cd呈现轻微污染,Ni和As呈现无污染;6种元素联合对儿童、成年女性以及成年男性产生的非致癌风险指数(HI)的均值分别为6.8×10~(-1)、4.4×10~(-2)、3.8×10~(-2);Ni、Cd和As联合对3种研究群体产生的致癌风险指数(TCR)的均值依次为4.55×10~(-8)、3.90×10~(-8)、3.61×10~(-8),手-口摄入途径为3种研究人群最主要的暴露途径。昌吉市地表灰尘中6种重金属元素整体污染态势较低,各重金属元素对人体产生的HI和TCR尚属可接受范畴,As为昌吉市地表灰尘中最主要的健康风险元素。     

开封市公园地表灰尘重金属污染及健康风险

在开封市龙亭公园(PL)、相国寺(PX)、铁塔公园(PT)、清明上河园(PQ)采集地表灰尘样品52个,用原子荧光(AFS)法测定灰尘Hg、As含量,用电感耦合等离子体质谱(ICP-MS)法测定Cr、Cu、Zn、Pb、Ni、Cd含量.然后应用地积累指数(Igeo)和污染负荷指数(PLI)探讨灰尘重金属污染特征,应用美国环保署的健康风险模型开展针对成人的重金属健康风险评价.结果表明,灰尘Hg、Cd、Pb、Zn、Cu含量明显高于中国潮土背景值和开封市周边灰尘背景值,其中Hg、Pb严重污染,Cu、Zn、Cd多为轻污染和偏中度污染,As、Cr、Ni污染程度较轻.4个公园中PX灰尘为强度污染,PL为中度污染,PT和PQ为轻度污染.各公园灰尘重金属的平均致癌风险指数(TCR)10-6,存在一定的人体可耐受的致癌风险,4个公园灰尘重金属平均TCR顺序为:PLPQPXPT.各公园灰尘重金属平均非致癌风险总指数(HI)1,不存在非致癌健康风险.     

北京城市道路灰尘重金属污染的健康风险评价

道路灰尘是城市中一类重要的环境介质,人群可通过吸入、摄食及皮肤接触3种途径摄入灰尘中的污染物,长期暴露在灰尘环境中会对人体造成慢性伤害.为探索北京城市道路灰尘中重金属污染的潜在健康风险,本研究于2009年对北京城市道路网络地表灰尘进行调查并获得有效样品225个.研究测定了样品中常见重金属Cd、Cr、Cu、Mn、Ni和Pb的总含量,并应用美国环保署(U.S.EPA)人体暴露风险评价方法进行评价.结果表明,研究区域道路地表灰尘中重金属Mn、Ni的平均含量略低于北京市的土壤背景值,Cr含量略高于土壤背景值,Cu、Pb均值为背景值的2～3倍,Cd含量几乎超出背景值的5倍.不同途径重金属慢性每日平均暴露量排序为:手-口摄食途径>皮肤接触途径>吸入途径.重金属成人非致癌风险排序为Cr>Mn>Pb>Cu>Ni>Cd,儿童非致癌风险排序为Cr>Pb>Mn>Cu>Ni>Cd,均小于非致癌风险阈值;重金属致癌风险排序为Cr>Ni>Cd,均低于致癌风险阈值,其中以Cr和Pb的潜在健康风险最高.对比采样涉及的各行政区内儿童非致癌风险均值发现,风险值随城市功能区定位呈现梯度变化,即首都功能核心区>城市功能拓展区>城市发展新区.Cu、Ni和Pb的健康风险与人口密度、建筑用地等因子显著相关,其含量受人为活动的影响较大,应加强管理控制其风险.     

Toxic effects of acetochlor, methamidophos and their combination on nifH gene in soil

Toxic effects of two agrochemicals on nifH gene in agricultural black soil were investigated using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis （DGGE） and sequencing approaches in a microcosm experiment. Changes of soil nifH gene diversity and composition were examined following the application of acetochlor, methamidophos and their combination. Acetochlor reduced the nifH gene diversity （both in gene richness and diversity index values） and caused changes in the nifH gene composition. The effects of acetochlor on nifH gene were strengthened as the concentration of acetochlor increased. Cluster analysis of DGGE banding patterns showed that nifH gene composition which had been affected by low concentration of acetochlor （50 mg/kg） recovered firstly. Methamidophos reduced nifH gene richness that except at 4 weeks. The medium concentration of methamidophos （150 mg/kg） caused the most apparent changes in nifH gene diversity at the first week while the high concentration of methamidophos （250 mg/kg） produced prominent effects on nifH gene diversity in the following weeks. Cluster analysis showed that minimal changes of nifH gene composition were found at 1 week and maximal changes at 4 weeks. Toxic effects of acetochlor and methamidophos combination on nifH gene were also apparent. Different nifH genes （bands） responded differently to the impact of agrochemicals： four individual bands were eliminated by the application of the agrochemicals, five bands became predominant by the stimulation of the agrochemicals, and four bands showed strong resistance to the influence of the agrochemicals. Fifteen prominent bands were partially sequenced, yielding 15 different nifH sequences, which were used for phylogenetic reconstructions. All sequences were affiliated with the alpha- and beta-proteobacteria, showing higher similarity to eight different diazotrophic genera.     

Arsenic uptake by arbuscular mycorrhizal maize （Zea mays L.） grown in an arsenic-contaminated soil with added phosphorus

The effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus (Glomus mosseae) and phosphorus (P) addition (100 mg/kg soil) on arsenic (As) uptake by maize plants (Zea mays L.) from an As-contaminated soil were examined in a glasshouse experiment.Non-mycorrhizal and zero-P addition controls were included.Plant biomass and concentrations and uptake of As,P,and other nutrients,AM colonization,root lengths,and hyphal length densities were determined.The results indicated that addition of P significantly inhibited root colonization and development of extraradical mycelium.Root length and dry weight both increased markedly with mycorrhizal colonization under the zero-P treatments,but shoot and root biomass of AM plants was depressed by P application.AM fungal inoculation decreased shoot As concentrations when no P was added,and shoot and root As concentrations of AM plants increased 2.6 and 1.4 times with P addition,respectively.Shoot and root uptake of P,Mn,Cu,and Zn increased,but shoot Fe uptake decreased by 44.6%,with inoculation, when P was added.P addition reduced shoot P,Fe,Mn,Cu,and Zn uptake of AM plants,but increased root Fe and Mn uptake of the nonmycorrhizal ones.AM colonization therefore appeared to enhance plant tolerance to As in low P soil,and have some potential for the phytostabilization of As-contaminated soil,however,P application may introduce additional environmental risk by increasing soil As mobility.     

Impact of atrazine and nitrogen fertilizers on the sorption of chlorotoluron in soil and model sorbents

Sorption of chlorotoluron in ammonium sulfate, urea and atrazine multi-solutes system was investigated by batch experiments. The results showed application of nitrogen fertilizers to the soil could affect the behavior of chlorotoluron. At the same concentration of N, sorption of chlorotoluron decreased as the concentration of atrazine increased on the day 0 and 6 in soil, respectively. The sorption of chlorotoluron increased from 0 to 6 d when soils were preincubated with deionized water, ammonium sulfate and urea solution for 6 d. That indicated incubation time was one of the most important factors for the sorption of chlorotoluron in nitrogen fertilizers treatments. The individual sorption isotherms of chlorotoluron in rubbery polymer and silica were strictly linear in single solute system, but there were competition sorption between pesticides or between pesticides and nitrogen fertilizers. That indicated the sorption taken place by concurrent solid-phase dissolution mechanism and sorption on the interface of water-organic matter or water-mineral matter.     

Degradation of metabolites accumulated of benzo[a]pyrene by coupling Penicillium Chrysogenum with KMnO4

Several main metabolites of benzo[a]pyrene （BaP） formed by Penicillium chrysogenum, Benzo[a]pyrene-1,6-quinone （BP 1,6- quinone）, trans-7,8-dihydroxy-7,8-dihydrobenzo[a]pyrene （BP 7,8-diol）, 3-hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene （3-OHBP）, were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography （HPLC）. The three metabolites were liable to be accumulated and were hardly further metabolized because of their toxicity to microorganisms. However, their further degradation was essential for the complete degradation of BaP. To enhance their degradation, two methods, degradation by coupling Penicillium chrysogenum with KMnO4 and degradation only by Penicillium chrysogenum, were compared; Meanwhile, the parameters of degradation in the superior method were optimized. The results showed that （1） the method of coupling Penicillium chrysogenum with KMnO4 was better and was the first method to be used in the degradation of BaP and its metabolites; （2） the metabolite, BP 1,6-quinone was the most liable to be accumulated in pure cultures; （3） the effect of degradation was the best when the concentration of KMnO4 in the cultures was 0.01% （w/v）, concentration of the three compounds was 5 mg/L and pH was 6.2. Based on the experimental results, a novel concept with regard to the bioremediation of BaP-contaminated environment was discussed, considering the influence on environmental toxicity of the accumulated metabolites.     

Potential of plant polyphenol oxidases in the decolorization and removal of textile and non-textile dyes

In this study an effort has been made to use plant polyphenol oxidases; potato （Solanum tuberosum） and brinjal （Solanum melongena）, for the treatment of various important dyes used in textile and other industries. The ammonium sulphate fractionated enzyme preparations were used to treat a number of dyes under various experimental conditions. Majority of the treated dyes were maximally decolorized at pH 3.0. Some of the dyes were quickly decolorized whereas others were marginally decolorized. The initial first hour was sufficient for the maximum decolorization of dyes. The rate of decolorization was quite slow on long treatment of dyes. Enhancement in the dye decolorization was noticed on increasing the concentration of enzymes. The complex mixtures of dyes were treated with both preparations of polyphenol oxidases in the buffers of varying pH values. Potato polyphenol oxidase was significantly more effective in decolorizing the dyes to higher extent as compared to the enzyme obtained from brinjal polyphenol oxidase. Decolorization of dyes and their mixtures, followed by the formation of an insoluble precipitate, which could be easily removed simply by centrifugation.     

Effects of two sludge application on fractionation and phytotoxicity of zinc and copper in the soil

The potential harm of heavy metals is a primary concern in application of sludge to the agricultural land. A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of two sludges on fractionation of Zn and Cu in soil and their phytotoxicity to pakchoi. The loamy soil was mixed with 0%, 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% (by weight) of digested sewage sludge (SS) and composted sludge (SC). The additions of both sludges caused a significant raise in all fractions, resulting in that exchangeable (EXCH) and organic bound (OM) became predominance of Zn and organic bound Cu occupied the largest portion. There was more available amount of Zn and Cu in SS treatments than SC treatments. During the pot experiment, the concentration of Zn in EXCH, carbonate (CAR) and OM and Cu in EXCH and OM fractions decreased in all treatments, so their bioavailability reduced. Germination rate and plant biomass decreased when the addition rate was high and the best yield appeared in 20% mixtures at the harvest of pakchoi. The two sludges increased tissue contents of Zn and Cu especially in the SS treatments. Zn in pakchoi was not only in relationship to ΔEXCH and ΔCAR forms but also in ΔOM forms in the sludge-soil mixtures. Tissue content of Cu in pakchoi grown on SC-soils could not be predicted by ΔEXCH. These correlation rates between Zn and Cu accumulation in pakchoi and variation of different fractions increased with time, which might indicate that sludges represented stronger impacts on the plant in long-term land application.     

Intraspecific differences in effects of co-contamination of cadmium and

A hydroponic experiment was carried out to study intraspecific differences in the effects of different concentrations of cadmium (Cd)(0-10 mg/L) and arsenate (As(V)) (0-8 mg/L) on the growth parameters and accumulation of Cd and As in six wheat varieties Jing-9428, Duokang-1, Jingdong-11, Jing-411, Jingdong-8 and Zhongmai-8. The endpoints of wheat seedlings, including seed germination,biomass, root length and shoot height, decreased with increasing the Cd and As concentrations. Significant differences in seed germination, biomass, root length, shoot height and the accumulation of Cd and As were observed between the treatments and among the varieties (p ＜ 0.05). The lethal dosage 50% were about 20, 80, 60, 60, 80 and 20 mg As/L for Jing-9428, Duokang-1, Jingdong-11,Jing-411, Jingdong-8 and Zhongmai-8, respectively, and the corresponding values for Cd were about 30, 80, 20, 40, 60 and 10 mg Cd/L, respectively. Among the six varieties, Duokang-1 was found to be the most resistant to Cd and As toxicity, and Zhongmai-8 was the most sensitive to Cd and As co-contamination. The resistance of the six varieties was found dependant on the seedling uptake of Cd and As. Duokang-1 was the most suitable for cultivation in Cd and As co-contaminated soils.     

Removal of heavy metals from sewage sludge by low costing chemical method and recycling in agriculture

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Isolation and preliminary characterization of a 3-chlorobenzoate degrading bacteria

A study was conducted to compare the diversity of 2-, 3-, and 4-chlorobenzoate degraders in two pristine soils and one contaminated sewage sludge. These samples contained strikingly different populations of mono-chlorobenzoate degraders. Although fewer cultures were isolated in the uncontaminated soils than contaminated one, the ability of microbial populations to mineralize chlorobenzoate was widespread. The 3- and 4-chlorobenzoate degraders were more diverse than the 2-chlorobenzoate degraders. One of the strains isolated from the sewage sludge was obtained. Based on its phenotype, chemotaxonomic properties and 16S rRNA gene, the organism S-7 was classified as Rhodococcus erythropolis. The strain can grow at temperature from 4 to 37℃. It can utilize several （halo）aromatic compounds. Moreover, strain S-7 can grow and use 3-chlorobenzoate as sole carbon source in a temperatures range of 10-30℃ with stoichiometric release of chloride ions. The psychrotolerant ability was significant for bioremediation in low temperature regions. Catechol and chlorocatechol 1,2-dioxygenase activities were present in cell free extracts of the strain, but no （chloro）catechol 2,3- dioxygenase activities was detected. Spectral conversion assays with extracts from R. erythropolis S-7 showed accumulation of a compound with a similar UV spectrum as chloro-cis,cis-muconate from 3-chlorobenzoate. On the basis of these results, we proposed that S-7 degraded 3-chlorobenzoate through the modified ortho-cleave pathway.     

Single and joint effects of pesticides and mercury on soil urease

The influence of two pesticides including chlorimuron-ethyl and furadan and mercury （Hg） on urease activity in 4 soils （meadow burozem and phaeozem） was investigated. The soils were exposed to various concentrations of the two pesticides and Hg individually and simultaneously. Results showed that there was a close relationship between urease activity and organic matter content in soil. Chlorimuron-ethyl and furadan could both activate urease in the 4 soils. The maximum increment of urease activity by chlorimuronethyl was up to 14%-18%. There was almost an equal increase （up to 13%-21%） in the urease activity by furadan. On the contrary, Hg markedly inhibited soil urease activity. A logarithmic equation was used to describe the relationship （P〈0.05） between the concentration of Hg and the activity of soil urease in the 4 tested soils. Semi-effect dose （ED50） values by the stress of Hg based on the inhibition of soil urease in the 4 soils were 88, 5.5, 24 and 20 mg/kg, respectively, according to the calculation of the corresponding equations. The interactive effect of chlorimuron-ethyl or furadan with metal Hg on soil urease was mainly synergic at the highest tested concentrations.