Non-conventional Water Resources Economics and Experiences in Developing Countries (II)

This two-part article gives an overview of the use of non-conventional water resources in developing countries. The first part (published in the January 1985 issue) reviewed United Nations involvement with the subject, and its relationship to the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. The main emphasis of the first part was on the development of technology and markets for the various desalination processes — distillation, electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. The general costs of the various processes were compared.
The second part of the article (presented here) concentrates on the other non-conventional water resources: transport of water by tanker and iceberg, wastewater reuse and weather modification. For all of the processes examples are given and economic comparisons made. It is concluded that it is always preferable to use conventional resources where available.
However, in water-short areas, consideration might be given to non-conventional resouces.     

OPTIMAL WATER USE AND SALINITY CONTROL FOR ENERGY - UPPER COLORADO RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: The Upper Colorado River Basin contains appreciable amounts of undeveloped fuel resources. Large quantities of oil shale, coal, and uranium have attracted recent economic and commercial interests. Development of these resources and subsequent conversion to alternative energy forms require an adequate supply of water. Water use for large scale energy development will place increasing demands on an already overstressed allocation of Colorado River water. Present water quality is at a concentration where increased salinity will result in economic detriments to holders of downstream water rights. The salt and water exchange in mining, processing, and spent fuel disposal processes has been incorporated as part of a two-level minimum cost linear programming algorithm. Mathematical simulation results provide an optimal use of Upper Colorado River water for levels of energy output such that salinity concentrations are maintained below predetermined levels.     

An ecological planning model

In this article a model is proposed that could be used as a basis for ecological planning of natural resources. The role of people as part of the ecosystem is emphasized, and the various factors that should be considered in such planning are discussed. An understanding of ecological planning is dependent on the study of human activities in, and the nature of, natural ecosystems. It also depends on the fact that people are a part of nature, and as a result nature is of value to humans. Realizing the importance of this principle is a prerequisite to studying nature and also for an understanding of the various steps in the ecological planning approach. Realization of these values is often through a series of activities that may result in a negative environmental impact. Nature is described as an interacting group of natural features and processes. In this study both the features and processes are described as natural resources. The use of these natural resources obviously affects them, and if this use is to continue over a long period, both the activity and the resource must be understood if they are to be maintained in a productive state. In order to limit impact and maintain value, a planning aid called zoning is used to assist in the understanding of the processes involved.     

Waste materials for activated carbon preparation and its use in aqueous-phase treatment: a review

Commercial activated carbon is a preferred adsorbent for the removal of micropollutants from the aqueous phase; however, its widespread use is restricted due to high associated costs. To decrease treatment costs, attempts have been made to find inexpensive alternative activated carbon (AC) precursors, such as waste materials. Some reviews report the use of waste materials for the preparation of AC; however, these studies are restricted to either type of wastes, preparation procedures, or specific aqueous-phase applications. The present work reviews and evaluates literature dedicated both to the preparation of AC by recycling different types of waste materials and also to its application in various aqueous-phase treatments. It is clear that conventional (from agriculture and wood industry) and non-conventional (from municipal and industrial activities) wastes can be used to prepare AC, that can be applied in various aqueous treatment processes, namely to remove organic pollutants, dyes, volatile organic compounds, and heavy metals. Moreover, high surface areas can be obtained using either physical or chemical activation; however, combined treatments might enhance the surface properties of the adsorbent, therefore increasing its adsorption capacity. It is evident from the revision made that AC prepared from both conventional and non-conventional wastes might effectively compete with the commercial ones. This happens mostly when the activation procedures are optimized considering both the raw material used to produce the carbons and the contaminants to be removed.     

SIMULATION – A TOOL FOR WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT: Proper economic evaluation of alternative plans will maximize the utility achieved from the resources available for water resource management. A knowledge of the frequency of occurrence of the events under study is necessary to fully utilize the advantages of economic evaluation in planning. Frequency information is widely used in flood control and water supply, but relatively unknown in water quality planning. A continuous, dynamic hydrologic and water quality model is presented to develop frequency curves for various water quality criteria. Results from the Denver Regional Water Quality Management Study are discussed as an example of the use of frequency analysis for economic evaluation of water quality management.     

Sustainable use of water in the Aegean Islands

Water demands in the Aegean Islands have increased steadily over the last decade as a result of a building boom for new homes, hotels, and resorts. The increase in water demand has resulted in the disruption of past sustainable water management practices. At present, most freshwater needs are met through the use of the limited groundwater, desalinated seawater, and freshwater importation. Wastewater reclamation, not used extensively, can serve as an alternative source of water, for a variety of applications now served with desalinated and imported water. Three alternative processes: desalination, importation, and water reclamation are compared with respect to cost, energy requirements and long-term sustainability. Based on the comparisons made, water reclamation and reuse should be components of any long-term water resources management strategy.     

What are the implications of human rights for minerals taxation?

This article examines the relationship between a state's taxation of mineral revenues and the human rights obligation to use ‘maximum available resources’ to further citizens' welfare. These both have implications for understanding the other but there has been little attention to their interaction.Contemporary (economic and policy) approaches to mineral taxation revolve around economic rent and providing a ‘neutral’ economic environment that does not influence investment decisions. There is no reference to human rights obligations—these are just part of the state's general responsibilities for which it can legitimately raise taxes. Taxation analysis largely ignores whether the state wants money to ensure there is adequate food for the population, or instead to stage the Miss Universe pageant.Human rights has relevance for the state's management of resources. The requirement for states to apply ‘maximum available resources’ to fulfil human rights suggests that mineral extraction (and taxation) should occur as fast as possible to be applied for the human rights of the current population A more considered analysis weighs against such a literal interpretation. Nevertheless, the requirement of using ‘maximum available resources’ to fulfil human rights has important implications for mineral taxation.     

CLIMATIC CHANGE AND U.S. WATER RESOURCES: FROM MODELED WATERSHED IMPACTS TO NATIONAL ESTIMATES1

ABSTRACT: Water is potentially one of the most affected resources as climate changes. Though knowledge and understanding has steadily evolved about the nature and extent of many of the physical effects of possible climate change on water resources, much less is known about the economic responses and impacts that may emerge. Methods and results are presented that examine and quantify many of the important economic consequences of possible climate change on U.S. water resources. At the core of the assessment is the simulation of multiple climate change scenarios in economic models of four watersheds. These Water Allocation and Impact Models (Water‐AIM) simulate the effects of modeled runoff changes under various climate change scenarios on the spatial and temporal dimensions of water use, supply, and storage and on the magnitude and distribution of economic consequences. One of the key aspects and contributions of this approach is the capability of capturing economic response and adaptation behavior of water users to changes in water scarcity. By reflecting changes in the relative scarcity (and value) of water, users respond by changing their patterns of water use, intertemporal storage in reservoirs, and changes in the pricing of water. The estimates of economic welfare change that emerge from the Water‐AIM models are considered lower‐bound estimates owing to the conservative nature of the model formulation and key assumptions. The results from the Water‐AIM models form the basis for extrapolating impacts to the national level. Differences in the impacts across the regional models are carried through to the national assessment by matching the modeled basins with basins with similar geographical, climatic, and water use characteristics that have not been modeled and by using hydro‐logic data across all U.S. water resources regions. The results from the national analysis show that impacts are borne to a great extent by nonconsumptive users that depend on river flows, which rise and fall with precipitation, and by agricultural users, primarily in the western United States, that use a large share of available water in relatively low‐valued uses. Water used for municipal and industrial purposes is largely spared from reduced availability because of its relatively high marginal value. In some cases water quality concerns rise, and additional investments may be required to continue to meet established guidelines.     

Framework for Measuring Sustainable Development in Catchment Systems

Integrated catchment management represents an approach to managing the resources of a catchment by integrating environmental, economic, and social issues. It is aimed at deriving sustainable benefits for future generations, while protecting natural resources, particularly water, and minimizing possible adverse social, economic, and environmental consequences. Indicators of sustainable development, which summarize information for use in decision-making, are invaluable when trying to assess the diverse, interacting components of catchment processes and resource management actions. The Driving-Forces–Pressure–State–Impact–Response (DPSIR) indicator framework is useful for identifying and developing indicators of sustainable development for catchment management. Driving forces have been identified as the natural conditions occurring in a catchment and the level of development and economic activity. Pressures include the natural and anthropogenic supply of water, water demand, and water pollution. State indicators can be split into those of quantity and those of quality. Impacts include those that affect the ecosystems directly and those that impact the use value of the resource. It core indicators are identified within each of the categories given in the framework, most major catchment-based management issues can be evaluated. This framework is applied to identify key issues in catchment management in South Africa, and develop a set of indicators for evaluating catchments throughout the country.     

Canadian applications in resources analysis

Resource analysis is defined for this article as the process of integrating geological, technological, economic and other information to identify possible options and constraints in resource-based economic systems. The authors consider as examples two cases. In the first, energy resource options are considered in assessing available technological paths towards the specific target of providing energy for vehicle transport. In the second case, factors affecting the general use of Canadian copper resources are considered in an attempt to identify those that may provide limits to the exploitation of the resource.     

生态补水对艾里克湖环境变化的重要意义

以艾里克湖为主要研究对象,论述了艾里克湖生态补水前后区域生态环境演变,并对生态补水产生的生态环境效益及社会经济效益进行分析。说明干旱区水资源的开发利用一定要优先保护生态环境。     

Energy efficiency: The best immediate option for a secure, clean, healthy future

The imperatives for reducing the world's dependence on fossil and nuclear fuels have multiplied manifold in recent years with the advent of worldwide terrorism. These new dangers come in addition to the imperatives of addressing the dire consequences of global warming and devastating pollution that accompany the use of these fossil fuels. Reducing dependence on these unsafe and unreliable energy resources should be a top global priority. Implementation of proven energy efficiency technologies offers the world the fastest, safest, most economic and most environmentally benign way to alleviate these threats. This article outlines available efficiency measures, their economic advantages and means by which they may be and have been implemented. While examples of efficiency applications from both developed and developing countries are given, the article relies heavily on experience with energy efficiency in the United States, where data on efficiency is particularly abundant.     

Energy Supply Potentials and Needs, and the Environmental Impact of their Use in Sudan

Sudan is an agricultural country with fertile land, plenty of water resources, livestock, forestry resources, and agricultural residues. An overview of the energy situation in Sudan is introduced with reference to the end uses and regional distribution. Energy sources are divided into two main types; conventional energy (biomass, petroleum products, and electricity); and non-conventional energy (solar, wind, hydro-electricity, etc.). Sudan possesses a relatively high abundance of solar radiation, and moderate wind speeds, hydro, and biomass energy resources. The application of the new and renewable sources of energy available in Sudan is now a major issue in future energy strategic planning and for an alternative to fossil conventional energy. Sudan is an important case study in the context of renewable energy. It has a long history of meeting its energy needs through renewables. Sudan's renewables' portfolio is broad and diverse, due in part to the country's wide range of climates and landscapes. Like many of the African leaders in renewable energy utilization, Sudan has a well-defined commitment to continue research, development, and implementation of new technologies. Sustainable low-carbon energy scenarios for the new century emphasize the untapped potential of renewable resources. Rural areas of Sudan can benefit from this transition. The increased availability of reliable and efficient energy services stimulates new development alternatives. It is concluded that renewable, environmentally friendly, energy must be encouraged, promoted, invested, implemented, and demonstrated by full-scale plants, especially for use in the remote rural areas of Sudan.     

Integrated rice-fish culture: Coupled production saves resources

Rice is a key component in global food security, as it is the main ingredient in the daily diets of around 3 billion people, especially in Asia. Like all agricultural production, rice cultivation depends on scarce natural resources. This article briefly outlines the utilization of land and water in rice production, and suggests an approach for optimizing use efficiency, namely through the combination of rice and fish culture. The authors argue that the utilization of land and fresh water is optimized through integrated and complementary production of rice and fish — two basic foods items in daily local diets. The article reviews currently available scientific literature on integrated rice‐fish systems. Rice‐fish culture systems are briefly characterized, and respective yield potential and interactions between rice and fish are discussed. Results of socio‐economic surveys regarding the adoption of integrated rice‐fish culture are summarized. The article also reviews literature on the impact of fish culture on rice field ecology as outlined in studies on weed infestation, insect populations, and greenhouse gas emissions. The article concludes that rice‐fish culture can be an option to help rice producing countries keep pace with soaring domestic demand for food, especially fish. Integrated rice and fish culture optimizes the benefits of scarce land and water resources through complementary use, and exploits the synergies between fish and plant.     

Economic incentives to protect water quality in market and planned economies

This article describes the evolution since the late 1960s of economic incentives and regulatory measures used in water quality management in market and planned economies. Economic measures and instruments for water quality protection are classified and discussed, and examples are given. The problems of pricing natural resources and providing incentives to conserve resources are discussed. Differences in policies between market and planned economies are analysed.     

Local Dirt, Global Dreams: mining investment and land use change in Arizona

A central problematic for researchers working at the interface of economic and environmental change is the development of research designs and methodologies that can satisfactorily link economic processes of global reach (such as direct investment) to environmental change at local and regional scales. This article reviews recent efforts to couple economic and environmental change and finds that relatively little effort has been made to use the direct investment process as a means of linking industrial restructuring to land use change. The article argues that direct investment, when conceptualised as a political-economic process involving the assemblage of a package of rights (to land, water, pollution permits etc), can be an effective vehicle for tracing through the impacts of industrial restructuring on local environments. To develop this analytical approach, an empirical case of mineral investment in the Gila Valley of eastern Arizona is presented. The case study identifies the acquisition of land and water rights as central strategic issues for mineral firms seeking to make investment, and traces through the impact of these acquisition strategies on existing patterns of land ownership and land use.     

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

Historically, the main objective of water resources development has been economic efficiency, and the technique for its evaluation has been benefit-cost analysis. Gradually other objectives have emerged, and these in order of their emergence are regional income redistribution, environmental quality and social well-being. These multi-objectives have given rise to multifarious problems, and have made the planning process much more complex than ever before. The different objectives are not mutually exclusive, and, hence, contributions to one can only be made at the expense of others. Trade-off studies between different objectives are difficult to make. It is suggested that one way to overcome this difficulty could be to design a system to perform optimally in terms of one objective, subject to a specified level of performance of the other, which in effect becomes a constraint. The paper also discusses the pros and cons of the desirability of public participation in our decision-making processes, and the necessity of developing social sciences models to aid water planning and management.     

Twenty years of PET bottle to bottle recycling—An overview

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) has become the most favourable packaging material world-wide for beverages. The reason for this development is the excellent material properties of the PET material, especially its unbreakability and the very low weight of the bottles compared to glass bottles of the same filling volume. Nowadays, PET bottles are used for softdrinks, mineral water, energy drinks, ice teas as well as for more sensitive beverages like beer, wine and juices. For a long time, however, a bottle-to-bottle recycling of post-consumer PET packaging materials was not possible, because of the lack of knowledge about contamination of packaging polymers during first use or recollection. In addition, the decontamination efficiencies of recycling processes were in most cases unknown. During the last 20 years, PET recollection as well as recycling processes made a huge progress. Today, sophisticated decontamination processes, so-called super-clean recycling processes, are available for PET, which are able to decontaminate post-consumer contaminants to concentration levels of virgin PET materials. In the 1991, the first food contact approval of post-consumer PET in direct food contact applications has been given for post-consumer recycled PET in the USA. Now, 20 years after the first food approval of a PET super-clean recycling process, this article gives an overview over the world-wide progress of the bottle-to-bottle recycling of PET beverage bottles, e.g. the recollection amount of post-consumer PET bottles and the super-clean recycling technologies.     

基于Logistic模型的水污染经济损失计量研究——以大沽夹河为例

首先讨论了水资源的价值及其计量.水污染经济损失,究其实质是由于水资源受污染而导致其使用价值降低或消失而造成的.在回顾已有的水污染经济损失计算模式的基础上,针对计算中存在的不足,提出了运用logistic模型来研究水污染造成的经济损失.并根据烟台市环保局提供的大沽夹河流域2002-2004年水质监测资料,研究该流域由于水污染而带来的经济损失,得出相应的结论.最后提出了一些防止和控制水污染的有效措施,以引起人们的警惕.     

PAST AND FUTURE OF ANALYSIS OF WATER RESOURCES TIME SERIES1

ABSTRACT: water resources supply and demand time series consist of several or all of the four basic characteristics: tendency, intermittency, periodicity and stochasticity. Their importance changes from one type of variables to another. Historic developments of analysis of time series in hydrology have varied significantly over the past, from the stress on search for periodicities and persistence in annual series to the emphasis on the series stochastic properties. Supply and demand series are often highly interrelated, which fact is most often neglected in planning water resources systems in general, and water storage capacities in particular. The future of series analysis in water resources will likely be by a joint use of physically-based structural analysis and the use of advanced methods of treating data by stochastic processes, statistical estimation and inference techniques. The most intriguing challenge of the future of this analysis may be the treatment of nonnormal, nonlinear and in general nonstationary hydrologic and water use time series. The proper treatment of complex multivariate processes will also challenge the specialists, especially for the purposes of transfer of information between data on variables at given points, or between data at several points of a given variable, or both.