Anthropogenic emissions of SO2 and NOx in Asia: emission inventories

The anthropogenic emissions of SO₂ and NO_x for 25 Asian countries east of Afghanistan and Pakistan have been calculated for 1975, 1980, 1986, 1986 and 1987 based on fuel consumption, sulfur content in fuels and emission factors for used fuels in each emission category. The provincial- and regional-based calculations have also been made for China and India. The total SO₂ emissions in these parts of Asia have been calculated to be 18.3 and 29.1 Tg in 1975 and 1987, respectively. The calculated total NO_x emissions were 9.4 and 15.5 Tg in 1975 and 1987, respectively. The SO₂ and NO_x emissions in East Asia (China, Japan, South Korea, North Korea and Taiwan) were 23.4 and 10.7 Tg in 1975 and 1987, respectively.     

中国商品能源消耗导致的氮氧化物排放量

能源消耗导致的NO_x排放是影响环境空气质量及区域酸沉降的重要因素.根据全国及各省区商品能源消耗与不同经济部门、不同燃料类型NO_x排放因子,估算了90年代中国NO_x排放量,详细给出了1997年分省、分地区、分行业及分燃料排放清单,并绘出了NO_x平均排放强度分布图.结果表明,中国NO_x排放量由1990年8.4Mt快速增长到1996年的12.0Mt.但与1996年NO_x排放峰值相比,1997和1998年中国NO_x排放量分别下降了约0.34Mt和0.82Mt.中国NO_x排放的燃料、行业及地区分布极不平衡:大约3/4的NO_x排放源自煤的燃烧;行业分布上,NOx则主要来自于工业(39.56%)、电力(36.74%)和交通运输(11.22%);各省区NO_x排放差别很大,河北、江苏、辽宁、山东、广东、山西、黑龙江、湖北和河南9省超过0.5Mt,而青海、宁夏和海南3省区小于0.1Mt.NO_x平均排放强度最大的地区(＞10t·(km²·a)^-1)包括上海、天津和北京市.总体来说,中国NO_x排和污染主要集中在人口密集、经济相对发达的东中部和东南部地区,尤其是北京、上海、天津等大城市.     

NOx and SOx emissions from fossil fuels: A global distribution

This paper presents a global database of annual NO_x and SO_x emissions from fossil fuel combustion at a 1° resolution. The annual emissions estimates were based on fuel consumption for individual countries and are distributed according to human population within each country. There is a large spatial variability in the distribution of these emissions with over 90% of each gas being emitted in the Northern Hemisphere. It is expected that the estimates of NO_x and SO_x emissions will be useful for global and regional chemical transport simulations. The database is available from the author for this purpose.     

京津冀与长三角区域大气NO2污染特征

基于地面监测及遥感反演数据,研究了京津冀与长三角区域大气NO2污染特征,并进行了对比分析.从2005～2011年的平均近地面质量浓度和垂直柱浓度来看,京津冀与长三角中心城市大气NO2基本处于同一污染水平;其区域背景站的NO2浓度也差异不大,且与两大区域过渡地带的合肥市大致相同.区域NO2高浓度中心夏季较为分散,秋冬季高浓度范围明显扩大,冬季全部连为一片.近年来随着中心城区污染企业的外迁,北京、上海等城市核心区NO2近地面污染有所缓解,但区域背景站NO2近地面浓度和垂直柱浓度都有所升高,京津冀与长三角NO2整体污染水平形势依旧严峻.从区域分布看,北京、上海等城市NO2浓度较高,NO2柱浓度高出区域背景的50%左右,大约是欧亚大陆背景水平的3倍;近地面NO2浓度地域差异更大,北京、上海等中心城市NO2近地面质量浓度是城市清洁区的2倍,是区域背景的10倍以上,达欧亚大陆背景站瓦里关的上千倍.北京奥运及上海世博等大型活动之前及期间大气污染集中整治效果较为明显,但活动结束后,城市大气NO2污染都出现反弹.结果表明,区域空气质量的持续改善需要区域内各省市常抓不懈的联防联控,仅靠短期内运动式的污染治理难以从根本上解决大气环境问题.     

1997~2011年北京市空气中酸性物质与降水组分变化趋势的相关性分析

依据北京市环境保护监测中心1997～2011年降水监测资料、大气环境质量监测资料,结合北京经济发展和能源结构变化,分析了酸雨前体物的排放与环境空气中酸性物质及降水中组分的相关性,为政府部门评定大气污染治理效果,制定未来防控政策和规划提供科学决策依据.研究表明,环境空气中NO2、NOx、SO2年均浓度显著相关,说明北京地区环境空气中氮与硫的来源基本相同,均来自化石燃料燃烧排放,这也是酸雨形成的根本原因.北京市大气中的污染物主要来自局地排放源,而降水中硫、氮的湿沉降量与环境空气中SO2、NO2、NOx浓度变化趋势的相关性较差,表明降水中各离子浓度受局地源和外来大气输送共同作用的影响.同时发现降水中硝酸根浓度与机动车数量呈现相同变化趋势,反映出机动车尾气排放的NOx与降水中硝酸根浓度增长密切相关.     

含氧生物质燃料的生命周期评价

为公正评价汽车代用燃料的能耗与环境效益,运用生命周期评价方法,研究了在燃料中分别添加不同比例的乙醇和甲酯2种生物质,带来的生命周期能耗和污染物排放变化,并对含氧生物质燃料的未来情景进行了预测分析.结果表明:乙醇代用燃料未降低化石燃料消耗,甲酯代用燃料可降低约20%的化石燃料消耗;几种配比的代用燃料均可降低石油消耗,甲酯代用燃料降低的趋势更加明显;各种代用燃料的温室气体排放都比较严重;乙醇代用燃料增加了NO_x排放,而甲酯代用燃料可降低约50%的NO_x排放;乙醇和甲酯的加入均能降低车用阶段的PM₁₀排放;燃料生产阶段的SO₂排放在整个生命周期中约占80%,必须严格控制;甲酯代用燃料可降低VOC排放.     

Source-receptor relationships for wet SO42− and NO3− production

Precipitation chemistry data for the years 1982–1985 from 110 stations distributed across the continental U.S. and southern Ontario Province are used to describe the geographic distributions of SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻ in precipitation. Volume-weighted, wet SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻ concentrations, averaged over the 4 years of observation by season and annullly, show coherent patterns with maxima in the northeastern U.S. and southeastern Canada about ten times greater than the minima observed in the Intermountain and Pacific Northwest regions.Tests for empirical source-receptor relationships indicate that, in land areas with relatively low emissions of SO₂ and NO_x, the associations between wet SO₄²⁻ concentrations and SO₂ emissions and between wet NO₃⁻ concentrations and NO_x emissions within 560 km of each precipitation chemistry station are weak or nonexistent (r²⩽0.42). The remaining land areas show moderate to strong associations between SO₂ and SO₄²⁻ and NO_x and NO₃⁻ during the spring and summer, but only weak to nonexistent associations during the winter. The associations between emissions and concentrations, e.g. SO₂ and SO₄²⁻, are equally well represented by either a linear or a power law function. However, at the level of aggregation employed, the data do not substantiate a linear-proportional relationship between concentrations and anthropogenic emissions. Furthermore, emissions of SO₂ and NO_x are highly correlated, as are the emissions of RHC and NO_x.     

The impact of changing regional emissions on precipitation chemistry in the eastern United States

From 1975 to 1987 a 19% change in SO₂ emissions a 16% change in NO_x emissions have occurred over the eastern and mid-western U.S. Six continental precipitation chemistry sites from the MAP3S network, plus the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, NH, show a direct relationship between emission levels and precipitation H⁺ and SO₄^2- concentrations, except for Penn State, PA. MAP3S sites at Illinois and Ohio, located closest to the major SO₂ source regions, demonstrates statiscally significant (P <0.05) linear regressions of SO₄^2- concentrations on SO₂ emissions. Whiteface Mt., NY, shows a weaker relationship (P <0.01), and Hubbard Brook shows the strongest relationship (P <0.01) between SO₂ emissions and SO₄^2- concentration in precipitation. No site shows a significant relationship (P <0.10) for NO_x emissions and NO₃⁻ concentrations in precipitation. Illinois, Ohio, Ithaca and Hubbard Brook show significant linear regressions of H⁺ concentrations on emissions of SO₂ + NO_x (P <0.10, 0.05, 0.01, and 0.01, respectively). Overall, for the entire region examined, decreasing SO₂ emissions levels appear to have decreased SO₄^2- concentrations with an efficiency of 74% ± 15% (s.e.). Decreasing SO₂ plus NO_x emissions (18%) have been accompanied by a decreasing H⁺ concentrations (18%) suggesting an efficiency of conversion of 100% ± 15% (s.e.) for the study region as a whole. While significant reductions in acid species have occured at Hubbard Brook, further reductions in excess of 50% of present deposition are necessary to protect acid-sensitive ecosystems.     

Impact of energy structure adjustment on air quality: a case study in Beijing, China

Energy consumption is a major cause of air pollution in Beijing, and the adjustment of the energy structure is of strategic importance to the reduction of carbon intensity and the improvement of air quality. In this paper, we explored the future trend of energy structure adjustment in Beijing till 2020, designed five energy scenarios focusing on the fuel substitution in power plants and heating sectors, established emission inventories, and utilized the Mesoscale Modeling System Generation 5 (MM5) and the Models-3/Community Multiscale Air Quality Model (CMAQ) to evaluate the impact of these measures on air quality. By implementing this systematic energy structure adjustment, the emissions of PM₁₀, PM_2.5, SO₂, NO _x , and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) will decrease distinctly by 34.0%, 53.2%, 78.3%, 47.0%, and 30.6% respectively in the most coalintensive scenario of 2020 compared with 2005. Correspondingly, MM5-Models-3/CMAQ simulations indicate significant reduction in the concentrations of major pollutants, implying that energy structure adjustment can play an important role in improving Beijing’s air quality. By fuel substitution for power plants and heating boilers, PM₁₀, PM_2.5, SO₂, NO _x , and NMVOCs will be reduced further, but slightly by 1.7%, 4.5%, 11.4%, 13.5%, and 8.8% respectively in the least coal-intensive scenario. The air quality impacts of different scenarios in 2020 resemble each other, indicating that the potential of air quality improvement due to structure adjustment in power plants and heating sectors is limited. However, the CO₂ emission is 10.0% lower in the least coal-intensive scenario than in the most coal-intensive one, contributing to Beijing’s ambition to build a low carbon city. Except for energy structure adjustment, it is necessary to take further measures to ensure the attainment of air quality standards.     

The stem-II regional scale acid deposition and photochemical oxidant model—IV. The impact of emission reductions on mesoscale acid deposition in the lower ohio river valley

Assessment of the effect of reduction in emissions of primary sources on eventual levels of pollutants, pH of precipitation and total wet deposition is crucial in designing acid-rain control strategies. The STEM-II/ASM model is used to investigate the effect of reduction in emissions on the ultimate deposition patterns and amounts of major acidic pollutants in a mesoscale region. This work also investigates the effect of background levels of primary pollutant species on the eventual levels and deposition amounts of SO₄⁼ and NO₃⁻. A series of mesoscale simulations were conducted in which emissions of primary sources of NO_x and SO₂ were reduced and/or background concentrations of certain key species were changed. The results indicate that the dominant effect on the eventual deposition amounts of SO₄⁼ and NO₃⁻ is due to background concentrations of key precursor species such as SO_x and NO_x. With relatively high background concentrations, reducing SO₂ emissions by 50% and NO_x emissions by 40% resulted in reductions of 2–3% for SO₄⁼ wet deposition aand about 15% for NO₃⁻ wet deposition. However, reducing the background concentrations of SO₂ and SO₄⁼ by 50% and NO, NO₂ and HNO₃ by 40% resulted in substantial reductions in wet deposition; SO₄⁼ deposition was reduced by 40–50% and NO₃⁻ deposition was reduced by approximately 35%.     

A diffusion tube survey of NO2 levels in urban areas of the U.K.

A nationwide survey of ambient NO₂ concentrations has been carried out by Warren Spring Laboratory and AEA Technology, Harwell, in urban areas of the U.K. The survey utilised passive diffusion tube samplers, deployed at 363 existing smoke/SO₂ monitoring stations, and ran from July to December 1986.Although undertaken primarily to provide an independent check on the siting of monitoring stations to determine compliance with the European Community NO₂ Directive, the survey provides for the first time a nationwide picture of urban levels of this pollutant. London was found to experience the highest average NO₂ concentrations in the U.K., with these being highest close to busy roads. Concentrations were found to be only moderately higher in winter than in summer.Correlations between measurements of SO₂, smoke and NO₂ were examined. The closest correlation is observed between NO₂ and smoke, indicating traffic to be a dominant source of these pollutants. NO₂ data are also shown to correlate well with disaggregated NO_x emission data for the U.K.     

天然气-汽油双燃料车实际道路排放特性研究

为研究使用天然气对轻型汽车排放的影响,利用便携式排放测试系统（PEMS）,对25辆压缩天然气-汽油双燃料出租车在实际道路上分别使用汽油和天然气时的CO2、CO、NOx和THC排放进行了对比测试.研究结果表明：实际道路上,原装车使用天然气相比汽油时,CO2、CO的排放平均分别降低22%和24%,NOx和THC的排放平均分...     

30年来中国民航运输行业的大气污染物排放

民航是我国重要的交通运输方式之一,但我国民航运输行业的大气污染物排放问题报道较少.根据中国民航统计部门逐年统计数据,采用基于燃料消耗量的排放因子法,估算了1980～2009年中国民航飞机的大气污染物排放量,并分析了大气污染物排放强度及其变化.结果表明,30年来中国民航飞机SO2、CO、NOx和HC排放量逐年增多,分别由1980年的0.031、0.189、0.225和0.314万t增至2009年的1.183、7.298、8.705和12.159万t,排放量年均增加分别为0.039 7、0.245、0.292和0.408万t.SO2、CO、NOx和HC的排放强度呈降低趋势,其值分别由1980年的0.624、3.806、4.53和6.322 g.(t.km)-1降至2009年的0.275、1.697、2.025和2.828 g.(t.km)-1.中国民航运输行业所排放的SO2、CO、NOx占全国总排放量的比重很低,与其他行业排放量相比,中国民航运输行业所排放的大气污染物量也较小.     

Simulation based life cycle assessment of airborne emissions of biomass-based ethanol products from different feedstock planting areas in China

Oil shortage and environmental deterioration urge people to pay more and more attention to Biomass-based Fuel Ethanol (BFE), because it is renewable and apparently environmentally friendly. This paper aims to assess and compare the air emissions of three BEF products from different feedstock planting areas in China. For the purpose of a “cradle to grave” study of biomass-based ethanol fuel as a substitute transportation fuel, the authors chose “vehicle fueled by biomass-based E10 (a blend of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline, v/v)” as the subject. Then, life cycle emission models of Wheat-based E10 from central China, Corn-based E10 from northeast China, and Cassava-based E10 from southwest China were set up based on surveys; life cycle emission functions of CO₂, CO, N₂O, NO_x, SO₂, CH₄, VOC, and PM₁₀ were constructed and value of each emission category was calculated based on Monte Carlo simulation of the life cycle emission models. The calculation results showed that compared with gasoline-fueled vehicles, biomass-based E10-fueled vehicles release less CO₂ and VOC in their lifecycles, but wheat-based E10-fueled and cassava-based E10-fueled ones have more emissions of CO, CH₄, N₂O, NO_x, SO₂, PM₁₀ and corn-based E10-fueled ones have more emissions of CH₄, N₂O, NO_x, SO₂, PM₁₀. Suggestions on reducing the emissions have been proposed for future actions.     

Uncertainties in the Norwegian emission inventories of acidifying pollutants and volatile organic compounds

The uncertainties in the Norwegian emission inventory data for SO₂, NO_x, NH₃ and non-methane volatile organic compound (NMVOC) have been estimated based on expert judgements of uncertainties in input data and stochastic simulations. The SO₂ inventory is uncertain by about 4%, the NO_x inventory by about 12% and the NMVOC and NH₃ inventories by about 20%. Several possible systematic errors were identified; the SO₂ inventory is most likely overestimated, while the NH₃ and NMVOC inventories can be underestimated. Domestic shipping (for SO₂ and NO_x), crude oil loading (for NMVOC) and manure (for NH₃) are the sources that are most important for the overall uncertainty. These findings indicate that the inventory methodologies can be improved, leading to changes in the whole time series (recalculations). The robustness of emission obligations formulated as emission ceilings and percentage reductions have been compared with respect to uncertainties in input data. The formulation of obligations as emission ceilings is not very robust for any methodological improvements influencing the end year estimates. Relatively, small changes in the emission estimates can mean that obligations apparently are met without measures or that obligations hardly can be met at all. Obligations formulated as percentage reductions are on the other hand more robust, except when recalculations unequally affect the base and end year.     

民航飞机起飞过程气态污染物排放特征分析

民航飞机在起飞过程中发动机推力高、耗油量大,并且飞行高度低,由其排放的污染物对局地空气质量和人体健康存在较大影响.选择B737-800作为典型机型,通过对飞机性能参数的模拟,精确计算了其在全推力和减推力等多种方式下起飞离场爬升至1 000 m高度过程中NO_x、CO、HC和SO_2的排放量,并与ICAO基准模型估算结果进行对比.结果表明,NO_x是排放量最大的污染物.其中,全推力起飞过程4种污染物的排放量分别为4.849、0.062、0.031和0.229 kg.减推力起飞方式下,选择更高的灵活温度后,NO_x和CO排放量分别降低和升高,HC和SO2排放量变化不大.经过对比发现,ICAO的基准排放模型,对4种污染物的估算结果存在较大偏差.与机动车相比,单次全推力起飞过程与一辆小客车行驶9 508 km的NO_x排放量相当.精确计算方法为准确估算机场区域飞机污染排放清单提供基础.     

海峡西岸经济区大气污染物排放清单的初步估算

以2009年为基准年,结合污染源普查数据、统计年鉴及工业活动、居民生活等多个方面对海峡西岸经济区包括SO2、NOx、PM2.5、VOCs和NH3在内的大气污染物的排放量进行了估算,建立了海西区大气污染物排放清单.结果发现,上述5类污染物基准年的排放量分别为40.67×104、55.84×104、50.57×104、152.26×104和26.18×104t.其中,SO2、NOx及PM2.5的排放主要来自电厂,占排放总量的比例分别为25.58%、34.89%和38.75%;VOCs和NH3的主要排放源分别来自植被排放和养殖业,其贡献量分别为49.12%和47.07%.采用GIS对排放清单进行网格化处理,得出SO2、NOx及PM2.5的高排放强度区域与固定源的空间分布较为一致.此外,结合国家和地方"十二五"发展规划,采用情景分析方法估算了2015年海西区大气污染物的排放清单.与基准年相比,SO2、NOx和NH3的排放量呈下降趋势,PM2.5和VOCs的排放量呈大幅度增加.基准年排放清单的不确定性分析显示,VOCs排放估算的不确定度最大,为225%.     

长三角地区火电行业主要大气污染物排放估算

以2012年为基准年,利用排放因子法估算了长三角地区火电行业主要大气污染物(SO2、NOx、烟尘、PM10、PM2.5)排放.其中,SO2、NOx、烟尘、PM10、PM2.5的排放量分别为473 238、1 566 195、587 713、348 773、179 820 t.对于SO2和NOx,300 MW以上机组的贡献分别为85%和82%;烟尘、PM10和PM2.5方面,100 MW以下的机组贡献占比分别为81%、53%和40%.地区贡献方面,由大到小依次为江苏、浙江和上海.另通过对上海地区多家电厂不同等级机组污染排放数据进行统计计算,得出上海地区300 MW以上等级机组的污染物排放因子,对比分析可知,上海地区火电厂污染物排放因子水平总体较低.假设长三角地区火电行业同等级机组均与现在上海地区机组排放水平相当,则行业排放SO2可削减55.8%~65.3%,NOx可以削减50.5%~64.1%,烟尘可以削减3.4%~11.3%.若能提高较小等级机组的发电技术和污染控制水平,各污染物排放削减量可进一步提高.然而,根据长三角地区实际污染情况,应综合因素考虑火电行业削减排放,以促进区域空气质量不断改善.     

秸秆压块与燃煤供热系统生命周期环境排放对比研究

为证明采用秸秆压块燃料替代煤炭进行供热的可持续性,对秸秆压块和燃煤供热系统的生命周期环境排放进行了对比分析.基于我国2012年投入产出表,构建了投入产出生命周期评价(IO-LCA)和过程生命周期评价(PLCA)相结合的混合生命周期评价(Hybrid-LCA)模型,核算了玉米秸秆压块和燃煤供热系统供应1 GJ热的生命周期CO2、SO2、NOx和PM2.5排放.结果显示,秸秆压块供热系统的生命周期CO2排放量为7 kg·GJ-1热,比燃煤供热排放减少121 kg.此外,秸秆压块供热系统比燃煤供热系统可以分别减少SO2排放98%、NOx排放76%和PM2.5排放58%.控制原料水分,通过减少原料收集和能源转化过程中的耗损,减少能源转化过程的电力消耗以及控制原料收集半径等可以有效改进秸秆压块供热系统环境表现.     

An overview of emissions of SO2 and NOx and the long-range transport of oxidized sulfur and nitrogen pollutants in East Asia

The long-range transport of oxidized sulfur(sulfur dioxide(SO_2) and sulfate) and oxidized nitrogen(nitrogen oxides(NO_x ) and nitrate) in East Asia is an area of increasing scientific interest and political concern. This paper reviews various published papers, including ground- and satellite-based observations and numerical simulations. The aim is to assess the status of the anthropogenic emissions of SO_2 and NO_x and the long-range transport of oxidized S and N pollutants over source and downwind region. China has dominated the emissions of SO_2 and NO_x in East Asia and urgently needs to strengthen the control of their emissions, especially NO_x emissions. Oxidized S and N pollutants emitted from China are transported to Korea and Japan, due to persistent westerly winds, in winter and spring.However, the total contributions of China to S and N pollutants across Korea and Japan were not found to be dominant over longer time scales(e.g., a year). The source–receptor relationships for oxidized S and N pollutants in East Asia varied widely among the different studies. This is because:(1) the nonlinear effects of atmospheric chemistry and deposition processes were not well considered, when calculating the source–receptor relationships;(2) different meteorological and emission data inputs and solution schemes for key physical and chemical processes were used; and(3) different temporal and spatial scales were employed. Therefore, simulations using the same input fields and similar model configurations would be of benefit, to further evaluate the source–receptor relationships of the oxidized S and N pollutants.