Preliminary results from the analysis of metal samples from the National Materials Exposure Programme (NMEP)

As part of a U.K. National Materials Exposure Programme, samples of stone and metals are being exposed at 29 sites for a minimum of 4 years. The sites were chosen to cover a wide range of environmental conditions, climate and topography. Information on meteorological conditions and atmospheric pollutants are being collected from all the sites. Four of the sites also form part of an international programme that is operating concurrently for the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).Results are reported from the exposure test on bare mild steel, galvanized steel, painted steel, copper and aluminium. Rates of corrosion in industrial areas are well below those reported for similar sites in 1930–1960, mainly because of the large fall in sulphur dioxide concentrations, and in many cases the scale is becoming increasingly protective. Rates for aluminium are extremely low.The measured mass losses have been fitted to a variety of simple multivariate correlation functions. Work using continuous corrosion monitors suggests (in agreement with the mass-loss data) that:

1. 1.(i) the rate of corrosion of steel is controlled in British conditions mainly by the long-term average sulphur dioxide concentration, and scarcely responds to short-term SO₂ episodes;
2. 2.(ii) nitrogen oxide concentrations have little effect on the rate of corrosion;
3. 3.(iii) the chloride content of rain is not a very important factor for steel corrosion rates except at a few coastal sites.

     

Advancing pollution prevention and cleaner production – USA's contribution

In this paper, a brief history is presented of the development of pollution prevention (P2) programs and policies in both the states and by the federal government in the United States. Current trends are then discussed including the evolution of these programs, difficulties maintaining public support and prospects for the future. The 13 papers in this issue are then briefly described. They are grouped in the following four categories:

• •Government initiatives to increase use of P2 strategies and technologies
• •Purchasing initiatives
• •Sector initiatives
• •Program evaluation and measurement

The papers in this issue are representative of much larger activities in each of these categories. Most P2 activity occurs in the states and by the private sector. With the available space it is not possible to adequately represent everything that is going on in all its aspects, including academia. For the future, three grand challenges are described: maintaining public support, competing priorities affecting P2 implementation by businesses, and the challenges of documenting P2 progress.     

Ecological knowledge and North Sea environmental policies

In an analysis of North Sea eutrophication science and policies, focusing on the period 1980–2005, it was investigated how scientific information was used in policy-making. The analysis focused on the central assumptions of the rational policy-making model, i.e. that scientific information can be used to formulate decisions, based upon objective scientific information (rational decision-making), and secondly, can support implementing these decisions (rational management). In general terms, the following was concluded:

• •More knowledge has increased rather than reduced uncertainty;
• •In order to handle the problem of dealing with complexity and uncertainty at the political level, a simplification of facts has occurred, in this case focusing on nutrients as the main cause of the problem, at the same time excluding other possible causes;
• •Both the limited scientific view (i.e. the nutrient view) and the exaggeration of the seriousness of the problem (impacts, scope) have been used as an authoritative basis for the justification of political decisions. Both were not supported by the majority of the scientific community;
• •New scientific knowledge, not in support of existing policies, has been excluded from the policy process;
• •The science–policy interface, mainly consisting of “civil-servant scientists”, that emerged and increased its influence over the period of investigation, has been the central element in the simplification and exclusion process.

The main lesson learned is that work at the interface of science and policy must be subject to democratic principles, i.e. be transparent and involving all parties with a stake in the issue under consideration.     

Stakeholder evaluation of sustainable development in the life sciences industry

Corporate sustainable development (CSD) can help to force the life sciences industry (LSI) to move from responsibility towards accountability.In terms of sustainability issues, which currently affect and occupy the LSI and their stakeholders, one could speak of 4 generations:

• •The local side-effects of operations, production, distribution and use.
• •The effects and risks of the used and applied technologies and methods.
• •The affordability and access to essential available treatments and products.
• •The necessity and need for new essential products or treatments for neglected diseases.

In order to make corporations accountable, there have been many efforts in the field of evaluation. These efforts mostly remain very general. The problem is however that the different stakeholders have diverse understandings of the various sustainability issues. The paper proposes a 2-phased stakeholder-oriented evaluation method for evaluating CSD-strategies on specific sustainability issues of the LSI in Basel, Switzerland. During the first phase, corporate commitment is challenged against the stakeholders' expectations. In the second phase, relevant stakeholders evaluate the effective corporate performance against the corporate commitment.The evaluation method was extensively tested with the stakeholders of the LSI in 5 case studies on the 4 issue generations. The method turned out to work and delivered interesting insight into managing sustainability issues.     

Emissions of perchloroethylene from dry cleaned fabrics

A study was conducted to evaluate the emissions of perchloroethylene (tetrachloroethylene) from dry cleaned fabrics to determine: (a) how the introduction of fresh dry cleaning into a home affects the indoor concentration of perchloroethylene, and (b) the effectiveness of ‘airing out’ dry cleaned clothes in reducing perchloroethylene emissions. Small chamber tests were conducted to determine perchloroethylene emission characteristics for three fabrics at several air exchange rates. Test house studies were conducted to determine the indoor concentration of perchloroethylene due to the placement of dry cleaned clothing in the house. Based on the study results, and assuming that test conditions were representative of normal dry cleaning and consumer practices, the following conclusions were reached.

• (1)Emissions from freshly dry cleaned clothing cause elevated levels of perchloroethylene in residences.
• (2)For the three fabrics tested, ‘airing out’ of dry cleaned clothing by consumers for short time periods (4–8 h) will not be effective in reducing perchloroethylene emissions.
• (3)Adsorptive surfaces (i.e. sinks) in residences may have a major impact on consumer exposure to perchloroethylene.

It is emphasized that these conclusions are based on the results of the study reported. Significant variations in dry cleaning practices and/or in the mix of fabrics and clothing being cleaned could provide different results and conclusions.     

Levels of airborne man-made mineral fibres in U.K. dwellings. II—Fibre levels during and after some disturbance of loft insulation

In this study airborne levels of MMMF were determined in 11 dwellings during and after disturbance of loft insulation. The disturbance was in two stages.

• 1.(a) Minor disturbance. Household items (such as suitcases) stored in the lofts were moved around for about 10 min. The disturbance to the insulation material was kept to a minimum.
• 2.(b) Major disturbance. Insulation wools were physically handled for about 30 min, simulating the disturbance associated with activities such as rewiring or plumbing.

About 250 samples of air were collected on membrane filters and analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in conjunction with energy dispersive X-ray analysis. A few selected samples were analyzed by phase contrast optical microscopy (PCOM). During physical disturbance of the insulation, fibre levels in lofts measured over a 4-h period were up to 0.03 f ml⁻¹. Personal exposure during the disturbance activity was up to 0.2 f ml⁻¹. Contamination of the living space was not detected even though the access door to the loft remained open throughout the disturbance and sampling period.     

Sustainable tourism destinations: the importance of cleaner production

“Sustainable tourism destination” is an emerging term used in recognition schemes to promote sustainable development at destinations. This concept, which is still being developed, has the potential to stimulate the implementation of sustainable development through an interdisciplinary, holistic and integrative approach which combines different aspects of existing tools. This article will discuss the following:

• •conceptual definitions for sustainable tourism destinations
• •the need to integrate different approaches and tools for developing sustainable tourism destinations
• •the role which Cleaner Production plays in terms of developing sustainable tourism destinations

Cleaner production has an important role, to ensure that “prevention” is built into the concept of sustainable tourism destinations. It contributes by providing both a general strategy and specific experiences which may enhance other existing tools, concepts and policies. These can be integrated in a synergistic manner to achieve sustainable tourism destinations.     

Aerosol formation and growth in atmospheric organic/NOχ systems—I. Outdoor smog chamber studies of C7- and C8-hydrocarbons

Outdoor smog chamber experiments have been performed to determine the aerosol-forming potential of selected C₇- and C₈-hydrocarbons in sunlight-irradiated hydrocarbon-NO_χ mixtures. Measured aerosol size distributions were used to determine the rates of gas-to-particle conversion and to study the effects of the addition of SO₂ and/or NH₃ on aerosol formation and growth. The average aerosol yields by mass for the hydrocarbons studied were (the range of measured values for methylcyclohexane and 1-octene are in parentheses):

• •methylcyclohexane 9.2% (0.12–18.8);
• •1-octene 4.2% (0.17–6.9);
• •toluene 18.6%;
• •n-octane <0.001%.

The average yields are accompanied by large standard deviations (see Table 3) and depended strongly on the conditions, particularly the hydrocarbon to NO_χ initial concentration ratio. Addition of SO₂ to the organic/NO_χ systems led to an early nucleation burst and subsequent rapid growth of the newly formed aerosol. In the presence of NH₃, the gas-to-particle conversion rate of the organic/NO_χ system was enhanced perhaps due to the formation of NH₄NO₃ or the reaction of NH₃ with carboxylic acids. Sustained particle formation was observed when both SO₂ and NH₃ were present, presumably as a result of (NH₄)₂SO₄ formation. We have estimated the complexity of the 1-octene aerosol and identified 5-propyl furanone as a component of the aerosol.     

Emission reductions to meet deposition criteria

The paper assumes Governments are willing and able to reduce national emissions of pollution to protect the environment. Sulphur dioxide is examined as an important example. Although not necessarily true at the present time, it further assumes:

• 1.(i) that the cost of reducing these emissions from different industries (and other source types) are known, and that these costs include the secondary consequences of emission control (for example, possible resulting unemployment);
• 2.(ii) that maximum deposition criteria (mdc) have been established on some appropriate grid (above which undesirable environmental damage will occur) and that in some gridsquares these mdc are currently being exceeded; and
• 3.(iii) that priorities for reducing the deposition may be ascribed for each gridsquare. The highest priority may reflect concern over excessive levels of heavy metals in drinking water drawn from wells used by remote homesteads, for example. Gridsquares where more gradual, and hopefully reversible, damage is taking place would be given a rather lower priority.

The paper seeks to establish maximum levels of emission in each gridsquare which will result in depositions nowhere exceeding the mdc (on the scale of a gridsquare). It also offers a means of selecting an optimum staged reduction strategy whereby emissions are reduced gradually towards the ultimate maximum levels, and at each stage of the reduction, gives the maximum benefit for the capital outlay consistent with the priorities and costs outlined above.The paper utilizes a very simple analytical model of the deposition field resulting from a single emission. The model is tuned to give the best comparison with the 1985 sulphur deposition field obtained using the much more complex EMEP MSC-W Lagrangian model used operationally for acid-rain analyses in Europe.     

A systemic approach to incorporate sustainability into university courses and curricula

This article is based on an analysis of Lund University that took place during the summer and autumn of 2004 (available for download at www.iiiee.lu.se, click library and publications). The university had experienced a loss of momentum in their progress regarding environmental issues. The purpose of the study was to identify barriers to including sustainability-related content throughout Lund University curricula, and eventually to develop solutions to eliminate/overcome these barriers. The article describes how Meadows' “Places to intervene in a system” [Meadows D. Leverage points: places to intervene in a system. Hartland, VT, USA: Sustainability Institute; 1999] was used as a tool to systematically discover these barriers. The same intervention places are used as a basis for deriving solutions to eliminate/overcome the barriers. The main conclusions of this article are that Meadows list can be a useful tool to

• a.systematically identify and characterise the barriers towards achieving the organisational objective of incorporating SD into courses and curricula;
• b.identify ways to overcome these barriers;
• c.increase chances that these barriers are addressed with sufficient leverage.

The authors also experienced that the work method described here provides excellent fuel for creativity.     

Implementation-oriented and transformative research—Lessons from a project on conservation and sustainable use of forest resources in Ethiopia

This article draws lessons from a seven-year project on conservation and use of remaining coffee forests in the highlands of South-west Ethiopia. The project investigated the genetic diversity of Coffea arabica in its place of origin as well as economic perspectives of quality coffee marketing. With initially broad multidisciplinary natural and social sciences research a basis was laid for a second phase of praxis and implementation-oriented research in the same region.As a key innovative approach an NGO was established to take over all project management and implementation-oriented work in Ethiopia at the beginning of the second phase. This initiative helped decisively to solve the kind of problems identified in RESCUE (2012): ownership of results developed within R&D, the often missing mandate for science to actively contribute to solutions ‘on the ground’, and problems of cultural and social unsuitability and misunderstanding, which often are at the core of the problem when solutions from scientists are expected.The NGO operated as an intermediary between the involved scientists and other stakeholders from the coffee industry as well as from public administration and the Ethiopian polity. Its overall target was to contribute toward establishment of a biosphere reserve following the UNESCO MAB scheme and to use this scheme for the conservation and use of the remaining Ethiopian coffee forests. This target was achieved: the biosphere reserve has been accepted and accredited by UNESCO and is in operation. In addition, quality coffee from the development zones of the biosphere reserve is being sold on local markets in Yayu, SW Ethiopia.There are important lessons for the future of transdisciplinary and transformative sustainability science that can be drawn from this experience. These lessons concern concrete challenges and chances of research and development geared toward sustainable development:

• •Working with implementation-targets as project organizing elements,
• •communication and transfer of responsibility to involved stakeholders,
• •challenges for praxis-oriented syntheses from research results,
• •practical challenges of management and coordination for transdisciplinary projects, as well as.
• •chances for long-term sustainability and use of research and implementation work.

These lessons are described in this article with the overall intention to draw conclusions and to make them more widely available for scientists and project coordinators working in transdisciplinary projects that aim to contribute toward (more) sustainable development.     

Wavering between radical and realistic sustainable consumption policies: in search for the best feasible trajectories

In this article radical change in the context of sustainable development is seen as a long-term process in which steady progress in the right direction is regarded as more essential than quick success. The author argues that pressing for swift radical changes bears a serious risk of becoming counter productive, because:

• pressing for rapid change is often wasteful and may prevent the best possible ways of exploitation of innovations;

• rapid change over a wide front of applications and sectors is usually impossible;

• pressing for rapid changes usually encounters strong opposition from interest groups, thereby risking to get bogged down in acceptability discourses.

Transition management, such as for a transition towards sustainable consumption seems often to presuppose the need for radical changes. Even though the embedding function of transition management is a helpful concept and tool for sustainable consumption strategies, the lack or the negligence of the role of objective functions is a disturbing feature of transition management theories. All in all, the need for radical change should emerge as the transition process unfolds. There is no good scientific reason for a priori claims for radical changes as a kind of new dogma.     

The relative contributions to the greenhouse effect from the use of different fuels

An attempt has been made to assess factors that indicate how various fuels affect the climate. In these factors emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are weighed together with reference to the direct and indirect effects of these gases on the long wave radiation absorption.The analysis is dependent on the time period that is to be studied. We have carried out calculations both on the basis of the coming 50-year period and on the basis of a period where the greenhouse effect is summed up after the total lifetime of the gases in the atmosphere, i.e. more than 400 years.The analyses show that the results become different according to the time period considered.The uncertainties in the calculations are due to the following:

• •the indirect effects of methane emissions, i.e. ozone formation, are difficult to assess;
• •knowledge about the emissions of methane and nitrous oxide is incomplete;
• •any other secondary effects such as emissions of carbon monoxide and other organic substances, natural and anthropogenic, may be of significance.

In addition, light should be shed on whether the results change significantly if account is also taken of the effects of the gases on the stratosphere, i.e. the depletion of the ozone layer.     

Possible steps to follow for filling the gap between requirements and the real condition in tanneries

The tannery industry, as one of most important industrial activities, faced more dilemmas at the fall of communistic era:

• -Can the branch keep a leading position for the exported products at the national level, under a de-centralized system?
• -Can the industry comply with the new, more stringent environmental legislation?
• -How far is this industrial branch from the European BAT/BATNEC?

Facing a completely new perspective for their development, many industrial units had a limited margin for manoeuvre and those not enough flexible had to shut down.“Economic survival whatever the price” has been the mantra for some good years. The newly presented EU legislation has been raising many difficult and complex problems for the units that managed to survive that they need to prioritize their improvement actions.Combining Cleaner Production (CP) measures with laboratory research for technology upgrades can have a synergistic effect for improving environmental performance and decrease resource consumption. The effects were evaluated for more experimented measures, such as better process control, toxics use reduction, and source separation of wastes. The results demonstrate that real improvements of environmental performance can be achieved and the indicators that were utilized have values that are comparable with those published for “advanced” processes practiced in EU.     

北京大气颗粒物数浓度粒径分布特征及与气象条件的相关性

2011年11月~2012年8月,采用WPS宽范围粒径谱仪在北京地区连续监测10nm~10μm间不同粒径大气颗粒物数浓度,并同步记录气象参数.结果表明,颗粒物数浓度均值为25014个/cm3,多呈单峰或双峰模式分布,其中冬季均值为31007个/cm3,春季23152个/cm3,夏季20882个/cm3,冬季明显高于其他季节.爱根核模态及积聚模态均呈现冬季高、春夏低的态势;核模态春季显著高于其他季节.各气象因素中,风速影响最为显著,粒径大于20nm颗粒物数浓度与风速呈反比.核模态与爱根核模态粒子数浓度在交通早高峰、正午与晚间高于其他时段,积聚模态粒子数浓度变化则相对平缓,夜间显著升高.     

北京地区不同天气条件下气溶胶数浓度粒径分布特征研究

2012~2014年,在北京城区利用宽范围粒径谱仪(WPS-1000XP)对气溶胶数粒径分布特征进行观测,进而分析了不同季节与不同天气条件下气溶胶粒径分布的变化特征.结果表明,春季爱根核模态气溶胶日均数浓度值最高,秋季最低;春季和冬季积聚模态下日均数浓度较高,夏季最低;粗模态气溶胶日均浓度在冬季最高.爱根核模态粒子数浓度日变化特征最为显著,受交通源及夏季中午前后的光化学作用影响明显.春、秋、冬季积聚模态状态气溶胶数浓度夜晚高于白天,粗模态粒子没有明显的日变化特征.重污染过程中,积聚模态气溶胶对于PM_(2.5)质量浓度起到决定作用,通常需通过北风的清除才能有效降低PM_(2.5)浓度;降雨及降雪对粗模态粒子的清除效果较为明显,而小风和静风状态下,降水对积聚模态的气溶胶没有明显的清除作用;沙尘过程中,粗模态粒子浓度显著增加,而积聚模态气溶胶却被明显清除.     

武当山夏季颗粒物数浓度谱分布特征及气团来源影响研究

为研究大气边界层中上层大气颗粒物的数浓度谱分布特征及气团来源的影响,于2018年6月利用3080型SMPS粒径谱仪对武当山14.6~660 nm颗粒物数浓度谱进行观测,分析和探讨了其数浓度谱分布及日变化特征,并结合后向轨迹、潜在源贡献因子法（PSCF）与浓度权重轨迹分析法（CWT）探讨对武当山颗粒物数浓度影响较大的外源输送路径和贡献源区.结果表明:①武当山大气颗粒物主要以爱根模态为主,平均数浓度为2 500个/cm3,积聚模态、核膜态平均数浓度分别为2 265、359个/cm3,3种模态数浓度分别占总数浓度的48.79%、44.21%、7.01%.②在新粒子生成日,核膜态数浓度于10:00开始上升,11:00—17:00的核膜态数浓度相对较高,约2 000个/cm3.新粒子生成日ρ（SO₂）与ρ（O₃）的日变化趋势均与核模态数浓度较为相似,表明SO₂和O₃参与光化学反应后的产物（硫酸及有机物）有利于新粒子的生成与增长.新粒子生成日风速、温度均大于非新粒子生成日,但相对湿度较低.③在东部及局地气团影响下大气颗粒物主要以积聚模态为主,数浓度分别为2 311和2 596个/cm3;核模态、爱根模态数浓度在受西北气团影响时最大,数浓度分别为806和3 078个/cm3.④潜在源区分析表明,影响武当山积聚模态数浓度的主要源区为十堰市本地及襄阳市,二者贡献值在840个/cm3以上.研究显示,武当山颗粒物主要以爱根模态为主,颗粒物数浓度日变化主要受大气边界层发展及山谷风的影响,较高的ρ（SO₂）与ρ（O₃）以及高温、低湿及较大的风速均有利于新粒子的生成,周边城市的区域性传输对武当山颗粒物的影响较大.      

Antarktische Meteorite

During the recent years more than 5000 meteorites have been collected in the Antarctic. They are mainly found on the surface of blue ice fields close to the Allan Hills and the Yamato Mountains. Taking into account all available analytical data of these meteorites and considering observations in the field the large number of meteorites found at the Allan Hills site can be explained by several specific circumstances:

1. On the bare ice fields in Antarctica meteorites with diameter less than 1 cm are easily detected.
2. The weathering of meteorites under the climatic conditions of Antarctica is very small. Therefore, higher densities of meteorites can build up on the surface of ice fields with no snow accumulation.
3. Concentration mechanisms due to ice movement and ablation of the ice are active. However, for the Allan Hills sampling site the collection of meteorites fallen on much larger areas is of less importance.

     

Temporary Carbon Sequestration Cannot Prevent Climate Change

Storing carbon in biosphere sinks can reduce atmospheric CO₂ concentrations in the short term. However, this lowers the concentration gradient between the atmosphere and the oceans and other potential carbon reservoirs, and consequently reduces the rate of CO₂ removal from the atmosphere. If carbon is released again from that temporary storage, subsequent atmospheric CO₂ concentrations will, therefore, be higher than without temporary carbon storage. It is thus important to analyse whether temporary carbon storage in biosphere sinks can mitigate climate-change impacts. To analyse that, climate-change impacts need to be quantified explicitly. Impacts can be quantified:

1. as the instantaneous effect of increased temperature
2. through the rate of temperature increase
3. as the cumulative effect of increased temperatures.

The analysis presented here shows that temporary carbon storage only reduces climate-change impacts related to the cumulative effect of increased temperature and could even worsen impacts mediated via the instantaneous effect of temperature or the rate of temperature change. This applies under both high and low greenhouse-gas emission scenarios. Because temporary carbon storage improves some, but worsens other, climate-change impacts, it achieves very little on average. For greenhouse mitigation, it is, therefore, not warranted to provide policy incentives for temporary carbon storage.     

Recent Trends in Residential Energy Use in OECD Countries and their Impact on Carbon Dioxide Emissions: A Comparative Analysis of the Period 1973–1992

In the late 1970s and for most of the 1980s, residential energy use in the OECD underwent significant changes. Many of these changes were a result of more efficient energy use in response to higher energy prices, energy efficiency programs, and the appearance of new technologies for saving energy. This study analyzes these changes and the impact of energy use on carbon emissions in the residential sector for nine OECD countries for the period from 1973 to 1992. The major findings of this analysis are:

1. CO₂ emissions per capita were lower in 1992 in almost all of the countries we studied;
2. The two primary changes were improvements in energy efficiency and a decrease in the share of fossil fuels used for electricity and district heating production;
3. The main source of growth in emissions from residential energy use was increased ownership of electric appliances, where, in spite of important improvements in energy efficiency, ownership grew so rapidly that electricity use (and subsequent emissions) increased;
4. Changes in fuel mix, including both the changes in the share of fuels used in households and the share of fuels used to generate electricity and district heating, led to a decrease in emissions in the nine countries;
5. Increasing the efficiency of electric appliances and further reductions in the intensity of space heating are probably the key elements in a strategy to improve efficiency as a means to lowering CO₂ emissions.