Carbohydrases of some marine invertebrates with notes on their food and on the natural occurrence of the carbohydrates studied

Extracts of 22 marine invertebrates were incubated with 29 different carbohydrates, and enzyme spectra estimated from chromatograms. Enzymatic activities were quantified as reducing sugar in 14 of these species. Significant hydrolysis of laminaran, glycogen, and amylose was found in nearly all species, while hydrolysis of oligosaccharides and structural polysaccharides in most cases was weak or absent. The strongest overall degradation of carbohydrates was found among crustaceans. Enzymatic degradation of laminaran shows some relation to food, but the spectra of carbohydrases are not directly predictable from knowledge of natural food sources. Some carbohydrases (sucrase, cellobiase, lactase) could not be explained by ecological considerations. The results indicate that structural polysaccharides are utilized only to a small extent.     

Calorific values of benthic marine algae and their postulated relation to invertebrate food preference

Data are given on the kcal/g dry weight, percent ash, and kcal/ash-free g of dry weight for 1 marine diatom species, 70 macroscopic benthic algae, and 1 marine tracheophyte species. For 41 of these, the data have also been converted to kcal/g wet weight. Calorific values, though relatively homogeneous within genera, appear to be influenced by phyletic affinity, water purity, or depth of immersion, and such ecological properties as growth form, generation time, and relative susceptibility to herbivory. Seasonal factors, portion of the plant combusted and growth rate appear to have little effect. The food preferences of various invertebrate herbivores seem to have evolved more in response to an availability factor than to absolute food value.     

Nitrogen cycling in a marine planktonic food chain: Nitrogen fluxes through the principal components and the effects of adding copper

Nitrogen cycling in a natural planktonic food chain was followed before and after perturbation by copper (10 g l^-1). Observations were separated into effects from artificial containment of the food chain and effects from the addition of copper. An initial reduction of seston-N and subsequent recovery, uniformly high settling rates of suspended particulate-N, and general decrease in zooplankton-N were attributed to the physical limitations imposed by the enclosures (e.g. elimination of normal mixing processes). Acute inhibition of nitrate assimilation by the seston, acute elevation of seston-N settling and chronic inhibition of zooplankton feeding, along with accelerated decline in zooplankton stocks, were attributed to copper stress. Since zooplankton stocks and fluxes were most drastically affected by copper, its overall effect on N-cycling through the planktonic food chain would depend largely upon the importance of zooplankton in regulating the production of the remaining seston.     

Temporal changes in C and N stocks of restored prairie: implications for C sequestration strategies

The recovery of ecosystem C and N dynamics after disturbance can be a slow process. Chronosequence approaches offer unique opportunities to use space-for-time substitution to quantify the recovery of ecosystem C and N stocks and estimate the potential of restoration practices for C sequestration. We studied the distribution of C and N stocks in two chronosequences that included long-term cultivated lands, 3- to 26-year-old prairie restorations, and remnant prairie on two related soil series. Results from the two chronosequences did not vary significantly and were combined. Based on modeling predictions, the recovery rates of different ecosystem components varied greatly. Overall, C stocks recovered faster than N stocks, but both C and N stocks recovered more rapidly for aboveground vegetation than for any other ecosystem component. Aboveground C and N reached 95% of remnant levels in only 13 years and 21 years, respectively, after planting to native vegetation. Belowground plant C and N recovered several decades later, while microbial biomass C, soil organic C (SOC), and total soil N recovered on a century timescale. In the cultivated fields, SOC concentrations were depleted within the surface 25 cm, coinciding with the depth of plowing, but cultivation apparently led to redistribution of soil C, increasing SOC stocks deeper in the soil profile. The restoration of prairie vegetation was effective at rebuilding soil organic matter (SOM) in the surface soil. Accrual rates were maintained at 43 g C x m(-2) x yr(-1) and 3 g N x m(-2) x yr(-1) in the surface 0.16 Mg/m2 soil mass during the first 26 years of restoration and were predicted to reach 50% of their storage potential (3500 g C/m2) in the first 100 years. We conclude that restoration of tallgrass prairie vegetation can restore SOM lost through cultivation and has the potential to sequester relatively large amounts of SOC over a sustained period of time. Whether restored prairies can retain the C apparently transferred to the subsoil by cultivation practices remains to be seen.     

Daphne: a new multimetric benthic index for the quality assessment of marine coastal environment in the Northern Adriatic Sea

A new benthic index, named Daphne, is proposed for the Northern Adriatic coastal area, near the Po river delta. It is based on six characteristics of the community that do not require in-depth taxonomic expertise: number of mollusc species, % of bivalves, % of polychaetes, abundance of the opportunistic species Corbula gibba, % of amphipods and number of 'typical mollusc species' that are individuated by multivariate analysis. The application of the index in selected stations along a gradient of decreasing disturbance shows that it is simple to use in regular monitoring campaigns and that the results are consistent with environmental quality data in the special conditions of this area subjected to considerable river runoff. The index can be used in addition and as a complement to more widespread indices (such as M-AMBI); a comparison of the two indices performance is discussed.     

Daphne: a new multimetric benthic index for the quality assessment of marine coastal environment in the Northern Adriatic Sea

A new benthic index, named Daphne, is proposed for the Northern Adriatic coastal area, near the Po river delta. It is based on six characteristics of the community that do not require in-depth taxonomic expertise: number of mollusc species, % of bivalves, % of polychaetes, abundance of the opportunistic species Corbula gibba, % of amphipods and number of ‘typical mollusc species’ that are individuated by multivariate analysis. The application of the index in selected stations along a gradient of decreasing disturbance shows that it is simple to use in regular monitoring campaigns and that the results are consistent with environmental quality data in the special conditions of this area subjected to considerable river runoff. The index can be used in addition and as a complement to more widespread indices (such as M-AMBI); a comparison of the two indices performance is discussed.     

It's a dirty job but someone has to do it: The role of marine benthic macrofauna in organic matter turnover and nutrient recycling to the water column

Benthic macrofaunal populations through their feeding, bioturbation, burrow construction and sediment irrigation activities have profound influences on organic matter inputs to marine sediments (biodeposition) and on the vertical distribution of deposited organic matter within the sediment. These effects in turn influence the rates and pathways of organic matter mineralisation, and element cycles. Similarly, bioturbation, burrow construction and burrow irrigation are major determinants of sediment-water column fluxes of oxygen and nutrients.

In this review, I discuss the influences of the different benthic macrofaunal feeding (functional) groups on mineralisation processes and sediment-water column fluxes of particulate and dissolved nutrients. How these effects influence diagenic processes, the balance between aerobic and anaerobic processes, and the redox status of the surficial sediments. Finally, I discuss some of the limitations of the predominantly laboratory techniques which have been used to study “macrofaunal effects” and how this hinders the inclusion of the effects in quantitative sediment biogeochemical models.     

It's a dirty job but someone has to do it: The role of marine benthic macrofauna in organic matter turnover and nutrient recycling to the water column

Benthic macrofaunal populations through their feeding, bioturbation, burrow construction and sediment irrigation activities have profound influences on organic matter inputs to marine sediments (biodeposition) and on the vertical distribution of deposited organic matter within the sediment. These effects in turn influence the rates and pathways of organic matter mineralisation, and element cycles. Similarly, bioturbation, burrow construction and burrow irrigation are major determinants of sediment-water column fluxes of oxygen and nutrients.

In this review, I discuss the influences of the different benthic macrofaunal feeding (functional) groups on mineralisation processes and sediment-water column fluxes of particulate and dissolved nutrients. How these effects influence diagenic processes, the balance between aerobic and anaerobic processes, and the redox status of the surficial sediments. Finally, I discuss some of the limitations of the predominantly laboratory techniques which have been used to study “macrofaunal effects” and how this hinders the inclusion of the effects in quantitative sediment biogeochemical models.     

Stable carbon isotope variability in marine macrophytes and its implications for food web studies

Stable carbon isotope ratios (¹³C) of eelgrass Zostera marina and of kelp Laminaria longicruris showed considerable variation in time and space. The isotopic composition of Z. marina varied seasonally from a mean of-6 for leaves formed in June to a mean of-10 for leaves formed in February. The maximum range for individual leaves was from-5 to-11.4. Once a leaf was fully formed, its isotopic composition appeared not to change. In L. longicruris there was no clear seasonal pattern of variation, but in any given blade there was a spatial pattern of variation, with the thickened central band tending to be least negative and the margins most negative. In one blade the range was from-12 to-20. Since this range overlaps values that are found in various other macrophytes and in seston, the value of the stable carbon isotope ratio as a tracer in food webs involving macroalgae is questioned. For Z. marina, in which the values are seasonally predictable, the technique may be useful if interpreted with care. The most probable explanation of variation in the ratios is differential storage of biochemical components of different isotopic compostion.     

Studies on the resistance of marine bottom invertebrates to oxygen-deficiency and hydrogen sulphide

Oxygen-deficient and H₂S-containing marine areas are characterized by a decline in the number of species. In laboratory experiments with bottom invertebrates from various biotopes of the North Sea and the Baltic, comparative measurements of the resistance to oxygen-deficiency alone, and to the simultaneous presence of H₂S, were carried out. The resistance values obtained show relations to the substratum on which the species naturally occur. The resistance to H₂S is greater in those macrofauna species which show higher survival rates under oxygen-deficiency. Further experiments with isolated tissues demonstrate that the species specific differences in resistance occurring in whole animals are already based on the cell metabolism. In general, oxygen-deficiency and simultaneous presence of H₂S were endured better in cold than in warmth, and at somewhat reduced pH-values (around 7). The dependence of this resistance on the salinity was only minimal in euryhaline species.     

Moderate stoichiometric homeostasis in the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus: effects of diet and growth on C:N:P ratios

The influence of dietary elemental contents on consumer stoichiometry was investigated in selected and combined soft tissues (as a proxy of the whole individual) of the omnivorous sea urchin, Lytechinus variegatus. We raised urchins for 4 months in controlled seawater tanks using three different diets with different nutritional contents (from lower to higher: seagrass, red macroalgae, and a formulated diet). Individuals fed the different diets varied an average of 19.7, 19.4, and 38 % in C:N, C:P, and N:P ratios, respectively, with stronger temporal variability for C:P and N:P ratios across tissues and whole individuals. This resulted in homeostasis parameters (1/H) of ?0.45, 0.09, and 0.38, respectively, for C:N, C:P, and N:P, indicative of homeostatic to weakly homeostatic organisms, at least for C:P and N:P ratios. Individuals fed the nutrient-rich formulated diet had higher growth rates (14 ± 0.83 g WW month^?1) than those fed macroalgae or seagrass (9.3 ± 0.57 and 3.4 ± 0.33 g WW month^?1, respectively). However, rapid body increments in more nutritional diets caused both a decrease in the %N and an increase in the %P of soft tissues, which resulted in significant but opposite effects of diet stoichiometry and growth in sea urchin C:N (R = ?0.74 and R = 0.93, for diet and growth effects, respectively) and N:P ratios (R = 0.60 and R = ?0.63, also, respectively, for diet and growth effects). Among potential compensatory mechanisms helping to preserve certain levels of homeostasis, ingestion rates (g WW diet per g WW of urchin) were higher for seagrass and macroalgae diets than for the nutrient-rich formulated diet. In contrast, absorption and growth efficiencies displayed significant negative associations with nutrient contents in diets and did not exhibit nutritional compensation. Overall, our results suggest that resource stoichiometry strongly determines the growth rate of individuals (R = 0.88, P < 0.01), and moderate variability in C:N:P ratios of sea urchins possibly arise from differences in the allocation of proteins and RNA to body components, similarly to what has been proposed by the growth rate hypothesis.     

Photosynthetic rates of benthic marine algae in relation to light intensity and seasonal variations

The effect of light intensity on rate of photosynthesis was measured at irregular intervals over a 12-month period for 22 benthic marine algae in the western Baltic Sea. In most species photosynthesis (mg O₂·g dry weight^-1·h^-1) was highest in spring and summer, corresponding to the seasonal growth pattern of the algae. In winter all the species showed adaptation of the light compensation point. Highest productivity was shown by algae which are: short-lived annual species rather than perennials, eulittoral rather than sublittoral, and which possess sheet-like or filamentous thalli rather than coarsely branched forms. These factors are clearly inter-related.This research was carried out while one of us (R.J.K.) was an Alexander von Humboldt fellow at the University of Kiel, and is part of the programme Sonderforschungsbereich 95, Wechselwirkung Meer-Meeresboden, Universität Kiel.     

Temperature effects on behavior and survival of marine invertebrates exposed to variations in hydrostatic pressure

Investigation into the pressure resistance of 8 intertidal species belonging to the genera, Uca, Sesurma, Talorchestia and Littorina from the Northern Gulf of Mexico and Panama sheds light on the relationships between temperature and hydrostatic-pressure resistance. Generally, increasing temperature increases the pressure required to elicit reversible reactions such as increased activity and tetany, or paralysis, wheroas increasing temperature generally evokes the irreversible response of death (LD₅₀) at a decreasing pressure. Tropical stenotherms tend to be more sensitive to hydrostatic pressure than eurythermal-temperate species at the same or similar temperatures.     

Feeding and growth of juvenile stone flounder in estuaries: generality and the importance of sublethal tissue cropping of benthic invertebrates

We investigated the feeding habits and growth of juvenile stone flounder (Platichthys bicoloratus) in several estuarine nurseries in Sendai Bay, Japan. Prey abundance and composition and juvenile diet varied largely among sites. However, polychaete palps (mostly Pseudopolydora kempi) and bivalve siphons (mostly Nuttallia olivacea) were positively selected and frequently consumed by juveniles, indicating the generality of sublethal feeding of juvenile stone flounder in estuarine nurseries. Recent growth rates determined by otolith microstructure analyses were dependent on juvenile body size and water temperature, but independent of juvenile density and food abundance. Growth rates were nearly maximal from March to May, suggesting that food conditions are nearly optimal in these estuarine nurseries. Sublethal tissue cropping of benthic invertebrates is thought to contribute largely to these high growth rates.     

Nitrogen and phosphorus cycling in shrimp ponds and the measures for sustainable management

Six ponds of age 3 were selected 45 km north from Suzhou in the Tailake region, and research conducted on nitrogen and phosphorus cycling in P. vannanmei (Penaeus vannanme) ponds and M. nipponense (Macrobrachium nipponense) hatchery ponds under normal management. Two treatments each had three replications. The results confirmed that feed was the major path of nitrogen and phosphorus input, each accounted for 61.24% (193.81 kg ha(-1)) and 81.08% (45.20 kg ha(-1)) of the total nitrogen and phosphorus input for P. vannanme ponds; the values for M. nipponense ponds were 43.93% (86.31 kg ha(-1)) and 57.67% (14.61 kg ha(-1)), respectively. Water pumped into ponds contributed on average 83.57 kg ha(-1) nitrogen and 8.48 kg ha(-1) phosphorus for P. vannanmei ponds, and 87.48 kg ha(-1) nitrogen and 7.00 kg ha(-1) phosphorus for M. nipponense hatchery ponds. Shrimp harvest recovered 102.81 kg ha(-1) nitrogen (32.94% of the total nitrogen input) and 7.94 kg ha(-1) phosphorus (14.23% of the total phosphorus input) for P. vannanme ponds; and 43.94 kg ha(-1) nitrogen and 4.46 kg ha(-1) phosphorus for M. nipponense hatchery ponds. The sum of nitrogen losses through volatilization, denitrification and sedimentation was 173.62 and 122.39 kg ha(-1), 54.86% and 62.29% of the total nitrogen input for P. vannanme ponds and M. nipponense hatchery ponds, respectively. Sediment accumulated 41.46 and 14.63 kg ha(-1) phosphorus, 74.37% and 64.85% of the total phosphorus input for P. vannanm ponds and M. nipponense hatchery ponds. Draining and seeping caused 40.06 kg ha(-1) nitrogen (12.66% of total nitrogen input) and 6.36 kg ha(-1) phosphorus (11.40% of total phosphorus input) loss to the surrounding water from P. vannanme ponds in 114 days; 30.14 kg ha(-1) nitrogen (15.34% of the total input) and 4.45 kg ha(-1) phosphorus (17.57% of the total input) to channel water from M. nipponense hatchery ponds in 87 days, respectively. Countermeasures for sustainable pond management include improving feeds and feeding, sediment treatments, machine aerating, chemicals with no pollution, and integrated fish-shrimp cultivation. Management of water resources for pond and methods to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus loading into surrounding water from drainage are elucidated.     

Seasonal variation in the diversity and abundance of pelagic larvae of Antarctic marine invertebrates

Most marine benthic macroinvertebrate species reproduce via a larval phase but attempts to explain the occurrence of different larval strategies (feeding or non-feeding, pelagic or benthic) in different habitats have been largely inconclusive. There have been very few year-round surveys of meroplankton at any latitude and in consequence fundamental data on the diversity, abundance, and timings of larval life history phases are lacking. There has been considerable debate regarding the viability of pelagic larvae in cold waters with highly seasonal primary production but there has been only one year-round study of meroplankton in the Southern Ocean, and that was outside of the Antarctic Circle. We present data from the first year-round survey of meroplankton assemblages at a location within the Antarctic Circle. We surveyed abundances of meroplanktonic larvae over 1.5 year at Rothera Point, West Antarctic Peninsula (67°34′S, 68°07′W). Larvae were collected in monthly diver-towed net samples close to the seabed at 20 and 6 m total water depths at each of three locations and were identified and counted live immediately after sampling. A total of 99 operationally defined taxonomic types representing 11 phyla were recorded but this is likely to be an underestimate of true diversity because of inherent difficulties of identification. Larvae were present in all months of the year and although planktotrophic larvae were more abundant in summer, both feeding and non-feeding types were present in all months. Comparisons of seasonal larval abundances with data from a settlement study at the same sites and from the literature show that larvae of mobile adults settle in summer regardless of developmental type, whereas sessile taxa settle in all seasons. We suggest that this is a consequence of differences in the food requirements of mobile and sessile fauna and that the availability of food for post-larval juveniles is more critical for survival than factors affecting the larval stage itself.     

Heat resistance of gametes of marine invertebrates in relation to temperature conditions under which the species exist

It is the purpose of this paper to elucidate the possible role of the heat resistance level of mature gametes and embryos of poikilotherms in the adaptation of a species to environmental temperature conditions. Within a species, heat resistance of gametes does not undergo any recognisable changes even in the presence of significant fluctuations in temperature. Evidence in support of this statement was obtained on gametes of invertebrates belonging to different populations of the same species collected in different seasons, and on invertebrates maintained under different temperatures. The heat resistance of gametes is correlated with the degree of thermophily of the species concerned. Species living under similar temperature conditions exhibit minimal, if any, differences in heat resistance. Hence, the heat resistance level of their gametes is a function of temperature conditions of formation and existence of the species as a whole. During the ontogenesis of poikilotherms, eggs, zygotes and early stages of embryonic development are most susceptible to heat injury. The upper thermal limit for the normal development of eggs and embryos is only 1 to 3C^o higher than the temperatures encountered under natural conditions. It is concluded that the heat resistance level of gametes and embryos represents an adjustment to temperatures at which spawning, fertilisation and earlier embryonal development occur. Temperatures which, throughout the year, exceed the upper thermal limit or remain below the lower thermal limit for the development of embryos, act as limiting factors for the species' distribution.