Environmental impact of packaging and food losses in a life cycle perspective: a comparative analysis of five food items

The environmental concern and development issues regarding packaging has for 20 years to a high extent been on packaging when it has become waste. To reduce the environmental impact from the whole food packaging system it is also important to develop the packaging’s ability to reduce food waste. In some cases it may be necessary to increase the environmental impact of packaging in order to reduce food waste. In this paper, the environmental impact of packaging and food losses and the balance between the two has been examined for five different food items. The results show that packaging’s that reduce food waste can be an important tool to reduce the total environmental impact, even if there is an increase in impact from the packaging itself. This is especially true for food items where the environmental impact of the food is high relative the packaging, for example cheese, and for food items with high losses, for example bread. It is important to analyse the risk of increasing food losses when packaging design changes, for example, when the aim is less packaging material, which is the main intention of the packaging and packaging waste directive of the European Union.     

An environmental assessment method for cleaner production technologies

An environmental assessment method for cleaner production technologies enabling quantitative analysis of environmental impact is presented.The proposed method is based on material and energy flows and uses a set of profile indices, including raw material, energy, waste, product and packaging profiles that describe all material and energy flows related to the technology under investigation. The indices are used as a basis for determining an integrated index for overall environmental assessment of cleaner production technologies.The presented method can be employed to evaluate environmental nuisance of implemented, modernised and modified technological processes and products as well to perform comparative analyses of alternative technologies.     

Application of a comparative multidimensional life cycle analysis in solid waste management policy: the case of soft drink containers

The paper describes the application of a multidimensional life cycle analysis (LCA) for packaging soft drinks in Israel. The suggested approach combines the conventional product LCA, vertical summation of all environmental burdens along the chain of production, use and disposal activities, and horizontal comparison of different products and disposal options, such as recycling, incineration or landfilling. The paper attempts to show that the most effective, as well as transparent, means of comparing packaging alternatives, is to place them on a commensurate basis, the most appropriate one being a monetary basis. Taking into account limitations and drawbacks of monetary valuation of non-market assets (namely, environmental assets), the study derived estimates of environmental benefits and damages associated with each alternative. The production of soft drinks containers in Israel, used here as an example for the above mentioned considerations, is based mainly on imported materials, since natural resources such as oil or bauxite do not exist in Israel. Locally, only direct production and pollution abatement costs are incorporated in the final bill, while global environmental burdens are excluded. Countries extracting and producing raw material for the packaging industry, in effect, grant an environmental subsidy to the final users, in this case — the Israeli user. The paper suggests that only by globalization of externalities and fully internalizing environmental costs into the price of the final product (the packaging material or the packaged product), an equitable full environmental accounting can be designed. This mechanism can be even accompanied by global trading in the relevant environmental credits. Decisions will, consequently, follow a sustainable path, in both importing and exporting countries.     

装备封存的环境质量与腐蚀在线监控的信息化管理技术

为了提高装备封存保养质量和后勤保障水平,对仓储环境中高温、高湿、霉变和污染气体等几种典型的腐蚀因子进行了简单的综述。然后从仓储环境质量监控的自动化和信息化方面,对比分析了当前主流的多种腐蚀在线监测传感器技术。此外,对仓储环境空气质量监控的网络化与信息化管理进行了展望,通过在仓储环境关键部位安装多种腐蚀监测传感器和温湿度传感器,并在基础上组建分布式腐蚀与空气质量监控网络,通过反馈控制实现智能化的温湿度调节、空气过滤和气相缓蚀剂加注等仓储环境质量管理系统,这将有利于及早发现防锈包装材料的破损泄露和腐蚀隐患,通过主动预警,降低人工巡检的劳动强度,提高装备的保养效率。     

ECO-design of reuse and recycling networks by multi-objective optimization

An ECO-optimized reuse of process liquors addresses the financial gain and the effective use of resources. In processes that have a potential for process liquor recovery, the minimization of both economic and environmental burdens can be realised by an ECO-optimal design of reuse and recycling network (RRN).In this paper, a procedure for synthesizing such an RRN for a metal finishing process is investigated. The simultaneous analysis of environmental impact sensitivity (SAEIS) based on a superstructure approach, combined with multi-objective optimization is performed by mixed-integer nonlinear programming (MINLP). This allows an “eco–eco” trade-off i.e. total annualized cost and environmental impacts are minimized simultaneously. By varying the weighting factor, different RRN alternatives were generated. A replacement of the standard and closed-loop system by these solutions, even for the environmentally friendliest case, yielded a reasonable cost saving on raw material's inputs.     

军用包装与武器装备的环境适应性

阐述了环境对武器装备的影响,讨论了军用包装在武器装备环境适应性中的作用及与环境工程的关系,认为开发新的军用包装材料和包装技术、加强军用包装的环境试验是提高武器装备环境适应性的重要途径。     

我国塑料包装废物的产生和回收特性及管理对策

通过现场调查和资料调研,分析了塑料包装废物的流向和环境特征,总结了塑料包装废物回收的基本特点和经验教训,论述了塑料包装废物回收模式特点,深入分析了回收过程中存在的问题,并提出了加强塑料包装废物回收的管理对策. 结果表明:塑料包装是塑料制品中的重要构成部分,由于质量轻、回收体积大,不易回收,我国每年产生大量的塑料包装废物,城市生活垃圾填埋场成为塑料包装废物的主要流向和污染源. 目前我国塑料包装废物回收依托的是进城务工的个体回收者,与现阶段的国情相符合. 塑料污染问题不是短期内能解决的,必须采取长期的综合管理对策,如进行源头减量化、制定鼓励回收利用的经济政策、采取适宜的无害化处置方式等.      

对中外军用伪装防护包装器材建设的认识与思考

我军伪装防护包装存在质量意识淡薄、标准化程度低、防护包装方法和材料单一等问题。通过研究和借鉴外军,尤其是发达国家伪装防护包装器材建设的成功经验,研制出我军新一代具有防光学侦察、雷达侦察、热红外侦察等多频谱隐身性能,又具有良好的环境适应性和操作使用性防护包装器材。     

The importance of raw material equivalents in economy-wide material flow accounting and its policy dimension

This article presents a comparison of indicators based on an economy-wide material flow analysis, namely imports, exports, domestic material consumption, raw material equivalents of imports, raw material equivalents of exports and raw material consumption. These indicators were calculated for the Czech Republic for 1995–2010 using, besides an economy-wide material flow analysis, the hybrid input–output life cycle assessment method, which allows for a calculation of raw material equivalents of imports and exports. The results show that a calculation of indicators, which include raw material equivalents, is useful, as it provides some important information which is not obvious from imports, exports and domestic material consumption indicators. We have proved that the latter group of indicators provide the incorrect information regarding the environmental pressure trend related to material flows, underestimate the overall pressure related to foreign trade and provide incorrect information on the importance of various material categories in particular indicators. Consequently, in the case of the Czech Republic, the implications stemming from these points such as the very high dependency of the Czech production system on metal ores from abroad and a rather unequal distribution of environmental pressures between the Czech Republic and its trading partners have not been more thoroughly addressed by Czech economic, environmental and sustainability policies so far and present unresolved issues which will have to be dealt with in the future.     

A comparative study on milk packaging using life cycle assessment: from PA-PE-Al laminate and polyethylene in China

A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach was used to compare the environmental impacts in the life cycle of two milk packaging systems, PA-PE-Al laminate—a laminated foil made from paper, polyethylene and aluminum foil—and polyethylene. The data for the mass, energy fluxes and environmental emissions were obtained from published literature and from site investigations, for the two systems being analyzed for environmental impacts. The application of LCA using Eco-Indicator 99 has made the comparison of the environmental impacts of the two milk packages possible. The results of this LCA study are discussed and the results reveal that the composite packaging has a slightly higher environmental impact than the plastic one. In addition, the environmental impact of raw material extraction is the highest in all of the life cycle stages except for disposal. The environmental impact of composite packaging mainly comes from the fossil fuels, land use and respiratory inorganics categories, while the plastic packaging mainly comes from the fossil fuels category. However, the composite packaging has a greater environmental impact because it has not been well recycled and reused. This environmental impact could be decreased by developing the technology to separate out polyethylene and aluminum from the packaging.     

美国《清洁水法》技术经济评估实例概述与启示

技术经济评估是衡量环境政策合理性的重要手段和制修订环境政策的强有力依据,日益受到国内外环境管理部门的重视。美国作为较早开展环境政策技术经济评估的国家,形成了完善的评估体系,起到了良好的示范作用。概述了美国《清洁水法》技术经济评估的内容,剖析了采用费用-效益分析法进行技术经济评估的全过程。考虑到我国环境政策的技术经济评估工作尚处于起步阶段,在借鉴美国《清洁水法》技术经济评估经验的基础上,提出了针对我国实际的环境政策制修订技术经济评估的政策建议,以期对未来开展环境政策技术经济评估工作提供依据。     

Eco-labelling of wild-caught seafood products

Several eco-labels for wild-caught seafood have been developed during the last decade. This article describes and analyses the criteria applied by four different eco-labelling schemes for seafood products from capture fisheries, and discusses the criteria in terms of environmental impacts, based on the ISO 14040 standard for life cycle assessment.It is concluded that the most widespread eco-label, the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), mainly addresses the fishing stage, in particular the overexploitation of marine resources. LCA studies confirm that the fishing stage represents the most significant environmental burden, but energy consumption and emissions of anti-fouling agents at the fishing or harvesting stage contribute with significant impacts that are not being addressed by international labelling initiatives for wild-caught seafood.LCA studies show that significant environmental impacts are related to the life cycle stages after landing. This includes fish processing, transport, cooling and packaging (especially for highly processed seafood products). Hence, another challenge would be to include criteria related to the post-landing consumption of energy, certain materials and chemicals, waste handling and wastewater emissions. Minimizing product losses throughout the product chain would also be an important area for future criteria in order to avoid fishing at high environmental costs only to produce something that is later wasted.The analysis shows that the Swedish KRAV is the only one that currently addresses a range of issues that include energy and chemicals in the whole life cycle of the products. International initiatives such as MSC cover fish products from many parts of the world emphasizing ‘overexploitation of fish resources’. It is recommended, however, that international initiatives such as MSC develop criteria related to energy use and chemicals – at least at the fishing stage. Over time, other life cycle stages could be addressed as well to the extent that this is manageable.     

Collaborative activity with business partners for improvement of product environmental performance using LCA

Collaborative activities with business partners have potential to improve environmental performance of product and life cycle assessment (LCA) is an essential technique to implement eco-design of product and production process. However, collection of LCA data from supply chain is a major issue for LCA practitioners. We propose a Supply Chain Collaboration Model (SCCM), which is a framework for collecting producer-specific LCA data from business partners and for promoting improvement activity of product environmental performance. We demonstrate the practicability of the SCCM using three case studies. In each case study, two or three partner companies organized a product improvement project and carried out process analysis techniques such as LCA and material flow cost accounting (MFCA). As a result, improvement activities from the economical standpoint could provide an incentive for business partners to collect LCA data, and thus the SCCM is an effective framework for eco-design.     

我国包装废物的分类收集模式

针对塑料类、纸类和金属类等典型包装废物,采用3种包装废物分类收集模式,并在3个居民小区进行示范. 3种分类收集模式为:①自然状态;②在小区进行分类收集的宣传教育;③在宣传教育的同时由专业人员对小区生活垃圾进行分类. 采用物质流分析的跟踪观察法,通过问卷调查、现场采样和入户采访,对不同模式下各类包装废物的产生量、回收量与回收率等废物流数据进行统计,得到包装废物从产生、回收到再利用和最终处置的物流分析图. 结果表明:自然状态下包装废物也有一定的回收率,即我国现有的回收体系对包装废物的分类收集有一定的效果;不同类型包装废物的主要回收环节不同,纸类和金属类包装废物在家庭的回收率较高,而塑料类包装废物的回收主要依赖社会人员分拣;辅以宣传教育等方式,回收价值低、分类收集难度大的包装废物也能得到有效回收.      

物质代谢研究进展综述

传统的线性经济生活模式导致人类社会面临着巨大的环境压力,因此为提高资源的利用效率,实现社会经济的可持续发展,物质代谢研究逐渐成为近年来国际研究领域的热点问题。文章从三方面对国际上关于物质代谢研究进展做了阐述:①物质代谢的研究背景;②物质代谢的基础性研究,包括不同层次的物质代谢吞吐量的研究和物质代谢定量分析方法的探讨;③物质代谢相关的研究进展,包括土地利用/覆盖变化、自然环境效应和可持续发展与物质代谢作用关系的讨论。最后,对其未来的发展方向提出了一些建议,认为除了要进一步完善物质代谢研究方法和模型外,还应从土地利用/覆盖变化、研究尺度、政策和行为、生态环境效应等角度对物质代谢进行拓展分析。     

Environmental performance optimization using process water integration and Sustainable Process Index

Water integration studies have focused on reducing the amount of water used by a process on the assumption that environmental impact is reduced through efficient water reuse. However, the environmental impact of retrofitting the water network through the installation of pumps and pipes and energy for their utilization which may even lead to a network with a higher environmental cost as measured using a more comprehensive metric, is rarely, if at all, considered. Using the Sustainable Process Index (SPI) as a means of measuring environmental impact, this study addresses the question on water integration and environmental impact and shows that there is a balance that must be struck between water savings and water network modifications.     

区域环境-经济系统物质流与能流分析方法及实证研究

物质和能量流动是环境-经济系统正常运行的基本条件,研究原料、能源转化为产品和废弃物的代谢过程及环境影响,对于提高资源生产力,从根本上解决资源环境问题至关重要。参考区域物质流分析和能流分析方法,提出了区域物质流与能流分析的概念和研究框架,并对天津市1998-2007年间的物质流和能量流进行了实证研究。结果显示:2007年天津市物质消耗为97.25×10⁶ t,能源消耗为47.15×10⁶ tce,年均增长率分别超过10%和8%;外部调入物质约占直接物质输入量的46%,其中煤炭占了约40%,且完全依赖外部调入;资源消耗强度较高、产出率较低,导致资源大量消耗、污染物排放总量持续增长,这对区域资源环境产生了较大压力,环境容量总体处于饱和状态。最后针对存在的问题提出了相应措施与建议。     

Pollution prevention of cotton-cone reactive dyeing

Because textile industry is the second largest industry in Egypt and as small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) make up a great proportion of the total industry therein, it is desirable to attempt to decrease the pollution resulting from them for both economical and environmental advantages. In this regard a case was investigated which dealt with pollution prevention of cotton-cone reactive dyeing by several options, namely: dye reduction, soda ash minimization, acid substitution and finally their integration. Based on criteria such as product quality, effluent analysis, material balance, heat balance as well as cost estimation, the integrated process was found to be the most favorable that lead to cost saving of one million EGP per year.     

A game theory framework for cooperative management of refillable and disposable bottle lifecycles

Firms engaged in industrial ecology hope to reduce environmental impacts and costs, improve resource efficiency, and create symbiotic relationships that reduce transaction costs and enhance information flow. However, current LCA tools do not explain firms' incentives to implement the principles of industrial ecology, or how an individual or firm can affect the products and processes at other firms. Game theory, on the other hand, allows investigation of the willingness of producers and consumers to seek strategies that promote the common interest of the system while not harming their own interests. This paper applies game theory to the lifecycle of bottle packaging, and presents a framework for analysis of the choice between refillable and disposable bottles. Although refillable bottles may be more cost effective in the long run, bottlers only have incentive to use refillable bottles when they are sure that consumer return rates will be reasonably high. It has been found that consumers who keep or dispose of refillable bottles, or respond to deposit/refund return incentives by reducing their demand, may drive costs up and encourage adoption of disposables. A simple model is provided which finds the optimal bottler strategy as a function of the bottler's expectations for consumer cooperation.