Towards a coherent conceptual framework for emergency preparedness/response and rehabilitation – the application of the new ICRP recommendations given in ICRP 103

In the past, most emphasis in planning for and response to an emergency situation has been placed on selected protective measures in the early phase of an emergency to keep the doses received below levels where severe deterministic health effects can be excluded and/or where the risk of stochastic effects in the population is considered “acceptable”. Less emphasis has been placed on the development of comprehensive protection strategies which include considerations of the consequences of all exposure pathways and all phases, e.g. long-term rehabilitation. In its new publication 103, ICRP proposed a coherent conceptual framework for protection in all types of exposure situations including “emergency exposure situations” and “existing exposure situations”. In the context of developing protection strategies for these exposure situations, the Commission recommends that national authorities set reference levels between, typically, 20 mSv and 100 mSv annual effective dose (emergency exposure situation) and 1 mSv and 20 mSv (existing exposure situation). In order to optimise protection strategies, it is necessary to identify the dominant exposure pathways, the timescales over which the dose will be received, and the effectiveness of available protection options. The characteristics of the development and implementation of such protection strategies is described.     

基于“重要性-敏感性-冲突性”的陕北生态保护重点区域辨识

在城镇化快速发展背景下,生态环境遭到破坏的风险增加,这必将影响经济社会与生态系统的稳定与安全。基于RS和GIS相关技术,从生态系统服务重要性、生态敏感性和空间冲突3个方面,采用NPP定量指标评价法、空间冲突测度评估法和析取运算法,对陕北生态环境情况进行综合评估。在"重要性-敏感性-冲突性"框架下,辨识陕北生态保护重点区域,提出一定管控建议。结果表明:(1)陕北生态保护重点区域主要分布于陕北南部的黄龙山、子午岭地区、中部黄土丘陵沟壑区和北部榆林市境内的毛乌素沙漠敏感区。(2)延安市南部生态高价值与高敏感性并存,同时是空间冲突热点区,生态风险高。(3)延安市空间冲突水平相比于榆林市较强烈。能源开采活动、地形起伏、道路扩张及(生态工程)地表破碎性影响,给当地生态环境带来压力和风险。"重要性-敏感性-冲突性"框架的构建可为生态保护提供新思路,客观辨识出生态重点保护区域,对协调城镇开发建设和生态环境保护之间的矛盾及政策参考方面具有重要意义。     

长江流域生态环境的意义及生态功能区段的划分

中国加入WTO之后,中国经济进一步与国际市场接轨,融入世界经济体系,机遇和挑战同在。欧美各国近年大力推行的环境标志产品认证,对第三世界商品质量设置入关的环境门槛。长江产业带作为世界最大的内河产业带和制造业基地,现在世界通行的环境管理认证体系和环境标志产品的认证,对长江流域产业尤其是外贸出口产业有长远而深刻的影响。这种认证制度,一方面对我出口商品设置了新的障碍,另一方面又将环境保护压力直接施加到企业。重视流域生态环境将从政府行为、公民压力扩展到企业行动,由于流域生态环境的负荷愈来愈重,流域生态环境的自我调节和恢复功能大幅下降,引起了日益严重的流域性生态安全问题。根据长江流域生态环境特征、不同的生态功能及存在的主要生态安全问题,将长江流域划性生态安全问题。根据长江流域生态环境特征、不同的生态功能及存在的主要生态安全问题,将长江流域划分成以下五个不同的生态功能区段,即长江源地区、金少江段（直门达至宜宾）、长江上游段（宜宾至宜昌）、长江中游段（宜昌至湖口段）、长江下游段（湖口至入海口）。针对不同区段主要的生态安全问题,应因地制宜采取相应的防范和整治措施。为保护与恢复生态功能服务。     

Radioecological consequences of a potential accident during transport of spent nuclear fuel along an Arctic coastline

This article presents results pertaining to a risk assessment of the potential consequences of a hypothetical accident occurring during the transportation by ship of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) along an Arctic coastline. The findings are based on modelling of potential releases of radionuclides, radionuclide transport and uptake in the marine environment. Modelling work has been done using a revised box model developed at the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority. Evaluation of the radioecological consequences of a potential accident in the southern part of the Norwegian Current has been made on the basis of calculated collective dose to man, individual doses for the critical group, concentrations of radionuclides in seafood and doses to marine organisms. The results of the calculations indicate a large variability in the investigated parameters above mentioned. On the basis of the calculated parameters the maximum total activity (“accepted accident activity”) in the ship, when the parameters that describe the consequences after the examined potential accident are still in agreement with the recommendations and criterions for protection of the human population and the environment, has been evaluated.     

Radioprotection of nonhuman biota

Radioprotection has historically focused on humans with the assumption that human protection confers protection of nonhuman biota. However, there is a need to scientifically and independently demonstrate protection of nonhuman biota. Approaches to address impacts of radiation on nonhuman biota include applying an ecological risk assessment paradigm, setting dose limits, defining reference organisms, and assessing a geographic region. Recommendations include harmonization of a radioprotection framework for both humans and nonhuman biota, a consistent methodology to evaluate radionuclide and nonradionuclide contaminants, a graded assessment approach, development of dosimetric models for reference organisms, compilation of a radiological effects database, and periodic expert review of methodology.     

转型期的资源与环境管理：基于市场-政府-社会三角制衡的分析

在经济体制转型期，伴随着经济的持续快速增长，我国出现了前所未有的资源破坏和环境恶化现象，严重制约未来经济社会的可持续发展。由此，构建解决经济发展需求与资源环境供给矛盾的有效机制，成为政界及学术界共同关注的重点课题。从中国经济转型期存在的主要资源与环境问题分析入手，提出资源环境管理制度构建的理想框架，通过进一步评价我国在市场机制、政府干预、公众参与3个方面的经验及教训，分别提出未来改进的方向。研究结果表明：“市场—政府—社会”三足鼎立的制度结构是我国资源环境管理制度构建的理想目标，也是适应世界资源环境保护发展的潮流。最后提出协调政府和市场作用、构建市场运作平台、营造公众参与氛围等方面的政策建议。     

Radioecology, radiobiology, and radiological protection: frameworks and fractures

A framework for the protection of the general public has been in existence for a very long time, although steps have recently been made by the ICRP to ensure that it is more fully comprehensive with regard to all actual and potential exposure situations. Protection of the environment, however, has only recently begun to be addressed in a structured manner, and is still an evolving subject. Nevertheless, it needs to be centred around some form of parallel framework to that which has evolved for the protection of human beings, although clearly on a different scale. It also needs to be embedded within the basic science of radiobiology, and form a central part of radioecology.     

Consultative mechanisms in Sweden's environment protection policy

The institutional and legislative framework of Swedish environmental protection is presented with special reference to the role of consultation in the policy process. The functions and duties of the National Environment Protection Board, the Franchise Board for Environment Protection, the Environment Advisory Board, and the Product Control Board are outlined. The main thrust of the 1969 Environment Protection Act, the 1972 Hazardous Products Control Act, and the environmental impact assessment requirements of the Planning and Building Legislation is presented. The character of consultation within this framework is also discussed, with reference to the role of public participation and of organized regulated interests. It is found that the main functions of consultation in policy-making are “feeding back on former policy,” “foreseeing future policies,” and “canvassing for consensus.” In the stage of policy clarification, consultation is found to be a means of “catering for compliance” and “creating coherence.” In policy implementation, consultation is an important means of gathering information from parties possibly affected by implementative decisions.     

Ethics, genetics and dynamics: an emerging systematic approach to radiation protection of the environment

There is now a general consensus of opinion that an explicit approach is necessary to demonstrate radiation protection of the environment, and that this approach needs to be developed in a systematic way. The framework that is emerging links ethical and moral issues (anthropocentric, biocentric, and ecocentric) to broad-based principles and objectives of environmental protection (sustainable development, maintaining biological diversity, and habitat protection) and then links these, in turn, to the needs of current environmental management practices, such as environmental exploitation, pollution control, and nature conservation. The relevance of this to radiation is that its effects (such as causing early mortality, morbidity, reduced reproductive success, as well as resulting in observable (scorable) cytogenetic damage) are those that may have a bearing on these same environmental management practices. The devise that would appear to be most useful to bridge the gap between our disparate data on radiation effects and the needs of environmental management, is that of adding to the concept of Reference Man in the shape of a small set of Reference Animals and Plants. This approach has now been adopted by the ICRP, adding new dynamics-the motive forces, both moral and physical-to the subject. The way is now clear for rapid progress to be made on a number of fronts.     

Environmental monitoring and radioecology: a necessary synergy

Environmental monitoring primarily aims through sampling or by the use of direct detection equipment to quantify the levels of radioactive substances and ionising radiation resulting from human activities and natural sources in the different compartments of the environment. Its objectives are very practical and include the quantification of the environmental sources of ionising radiation and the verification of compliance with regulatory requirements and permit limits for industrial, research and medical activities, as stated by their specific licence. Radioecology is a multidisciplinary science, which attempts to understand and to quantify the behaviour of radionuclides in the environment and the processes ruling their transport through natural and agricultural ecosystems to various receptors such as plants, animals and humans. A second facet of this science covers the assessment of the radiological dose to and effects on man and its environment from present, past or future, even hypothetical, nuclear activities. Despite their different immediate objectives, environmental monitoring and radioecology are complementary. Many examples illustrate the connections between these two approaches. For instance, transfer parameters generated by radioecological studies are necessary to estimate through models the radiological exposure of population, derive from the contamination level measured in a bio-indicator the quantity of radioactivity released from a nuclear installation, or identify potentially important pathways to be monitored. On the other hand, monitoring data will confirm important pathways suggested by radioecological modelling and provide site-specific data for the estimation of model parameters or actual data sets for the validation of transfer models.     

海洋环境公益诉讼的制度定位及体系完善

《海洋环境保护法》第89条第2款规定了海洋环境监管部门代表国家排他性提起损害赔偿的诉讼制度,为海洋环境公益提供了特殊的诉讼保护方式。因该项制度设计的粗疏以及关联政策、立法回应不足,造成对该条款规定的理论解释困惑和制度适用障碍,导致提起海洋环境公益诉讼的主体类型受限、海洋环境公益保护诉讼程序衔接不畅、海洋环境监管部门"两种角色"手段配合不当的突出问题,直接限制了环境公益诉讼制度在海洋环境保护领域的功能发挥。破解这一问题的关键在于阐明海洋环境公益保护背后的诉讼法律关系和应用法理,完善海洋环境公益保护诉讼制度体系,实现海洋环境保护的诉权利益调整和诉讼秩序优化。重点是打破现有研究的思维定式,避免将《海洋环境保护法》第89条第2款规定的诉讼类型推演为海洋环境公益诉讼并作为讨论前提,明确该条款规定为带有维护海洋环境公益特点的"准环境公益诉讼",将其与"私益诉讼""国益诉讼""环境公益诉讼"进行合理界分,为海洋环境公益诉讼的发展提供制度空间,理顺各类型诉讼和保护机制之间的关系。在此之下,完善海洋环境监管部门"两种角色"作用发挥的制度设计,保障环境行政手段与诉讼保护手段之间的衔接配合,理顺海洋环境公益保护各类型诉讼提起的顺位与程序,促进各类诉讼手段各归其位,形成与行政保护机制的合力,最终实现对海洋生态环境的整体性保护。     

The Oslo consensus conference on protection of the environment

A number of international organisations are focussing on a revision of radiation protection policy from the existing system which addresses only effects on man, to one which also addresses effects on the wider environment. These developments are expected to effect a wide range of stakeholders, including industry, regulators, scientists, users and the public. With this in mind a "Consensus Conference on Protection of the Environment" was arranged as part of an International Seminar on "Radiation Protection in the 21st Century: Ethical, Philosophical and Environmental Issues" held at the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. The conference attracted 46 international experts representing various disciplines and affiliations including Environmental Science, Health Physics, Radioecology, Ethics and Philosophy and a wide spectrum of perspectives bearing on the question of radiation protection of the environment. The conference was novel in that the participants were professionals rather than laypersons, and the purpose of the consensus procedure was to identify areas of agreement as an input to the ongoing regulatory developments. The success and innovation of the model is reflected in the significant areas of agreement identified in the final consensus statement, and the subsequent interest at an international level. Participants also noted the need for furthering the debate through ongoing work. Notable issues were the harmonisation of standards for radiation with other environmental stressors, guidance for balancing different interests and values within practical management, and the need for assessment criteria.     

Quality assurance for the measurements and monitoring of radioactivity in the environment

During the Fifth Framework Programme (FP5) of the European Commission--according to an institutional programme in support to the policy of the European Commission for the implementation of Art. 35 and 36 of the Euratom Treaty as well as in the framework of the OSPAR Convention for the protection of marine environment of the north-east Atlantic--at the Institute for Transuranium Elements (ITU--General Directorate Joint Research Centre--European Commission), a reference laboratory for the measurement of radioactivity in the environment (MaRE laboratory) has been set up. In this paper, the principles and philosophy in order to improve the quality and reliability of analytical data for the measurement and monitoring of radioactivity in the environment under a quality assurance (QA) programme are presented. Examples of how a QA programme at the MaRE laboratory is developed and applied are given. Internal and external quality control (QC) programmes are also discussed.     

全球绿色低碳发展与公平的国际制度建设

在可持续发展和扶贫框架下发展绿色经济与国际可持续发展制度建设及改革是当前世界可持续发展的核心和关键,也是"里约+20"峰会的两个主题。首先,绿色经济是体现经济社会与资源环境相协调和可持续发展的根本途径。绿色经济的核心是以低的自然资源消费、低排放、低污染,达到高的自然资源利用效益,实现高的经济社会发展水平,提供高的生活水平和优良的生活环境。全球绿色经济的发展潮流,将引发社会形态由"工业文明"向"生态文明"转变。虽然经济发展和消除贫困是发展中国家当前首要和压倒一切的优先任务,但也必须探索新型的绿色低碳工业化和现代化道路,在实现工业文明的过程中,努力建设生态文明,实现跨越式发展。同时积极应对全球绿色低碳转型中新的经济、贸易、技术竞争规则和格局的变动,加强先进技术创新,提升自身的低碳竞争力。其次,公平获取可持续发展的理念,应成为国际可持续发展制度建设和改革的基本原则。可持续发展要求既要促进经济社会发展与资源环境相协调,促进"代际公平",又要关注欠发达地区消除贫困,提高生活质量,改善生态环境,实现"国别公平"、"人际公平"。因此,国际可持续发展制度框架的建设和改革,要体现世界各国公平获取可持续发展的理念和原则,全面均衡地反映不同国情和发展阶段国家的利益诉求。主要表现在公平享有全球环境空间、公平获得现代优质能源服务、公平适应全球环境变化、公平承担责任义务及公平的国际制度和机制。中国需要统筹国内外两个大局,走中国特色的绿色低碳发展之路。最后,中国的国情和发展阶段特征,在可持续发展领域又面临比发达国家更多的困难和更严峻的挑战。在全球发展绿色经济,努力实现可持续发展的大背景下,中国要统筹国际国内两个大局,协调推进。在国际上积极参与国际制度的建设和改革,在促进全球经济发展,社会进步和环境保护等方面发挥积极的建设性的作用。在国内加强可持续发展战略的实施,走绿色、低碳和可持续发展的路径。主要战略对策包括加速转变发展方式,强化节能优先,控制能源消费总量和CO2排放总量的过快增长;加强能源结构的低碳化,逐步建立并形成以新能源和可再生能源为主体的可持续能源体系;加强城乡统筹,地区平衡,促进生态城市建设;适应国际可持续发展制度改革的趋势,加强绿色低碳和可持续发展的制度建设;抓住机遇,顺应世界绿色低碳发展潮流,自主实现发展方式的转变,把传统的资源依赖型、粗放扩张的发展方式转变到新型的技术创新型、内涵提高的发展方式上来,基本走上绿色低碳和可持续发展的轨道。     

A framework for understanding climate change impacts on coral reef social–ecological systems

Corals and coral-associated species are highly vulnerable to the emerging effects of global climate change. The widespread degradation of coral reefs, which will be accelerated by climate change, jeopardizes the goods and services that tropical nations derive from reef ecosystems. However, climate change impacts to reef social–ecological systems can also be bi-directional. For example, some climate impacts, such as storms and sea level rise, can directly impact societies, with repercussions for how they interact with the environment. This study identifies the multiple impact pathways within coral reef social–ecological systems arising from four key climatic drivers: increased sea surface temperature, severe tropical storms, sea level rise and ocean acidification. We develop a novel framework for investigating climate change impacts in social–ecological systems, which helps to highlight the diverse impacts that must be considered in order to develop a more complete understanding of the impacts of climate change, as well as developing appropriate management actions to mitigate climate change impacts on coral reef and people.     

Waste disposal and the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection – Challenges for radioecology and environmental radiation protection

The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) represent a change from a process-based to an exposure-based approach, where exposure situations are categorised as planned, emergency, and existing exposure situations. Although the new Recommendations contain further changes based on, inter alia, scientific developments since the publication of the 1990 Recommendations, they overall represent more continuity than change – a notable exception being the direct consideration of environmental protection. The implications of the new Recommendations for radioactive waste management are fairly marginal, as earlier recommendations in this area are still considered valid. This communication provides a brief overview of the current ICRP system for radiological protection as applied to radioactive waste management, as well as an outlook including the possibility of using the developing ICRP system for management of environmental effects as an ‘alternative way of reasoning’ when building the safety case for a specific waste disposal concept.     

Principles and issues in radiological ecological risk assessment

This paper provides a bridge between the fields of ecological risk assessment (ERA) and radioecology by presenting key biota dose assessment issues identified in the US Department of Energy's Graded Approach for Evaluating Radiation Doses to Aquatic and Terrestrial Biota in a manner consistent with the US Environmental Protection Agency's framework for ERA. Current radiological ERA methods and data are intended for use in protecting natural populations of biota, rather than individual members of a population. Potentially susceptible receptors include vertebrates and terrestrial plants. One must ensure that all media, radionuclides (including short-lived radioactive decay products), types of radiations (i.e., alpha particles, electrons, and photons), and pathways (i.e., internal and external contamination) are combined in each exposure scenario. The relative biological effectiveness of alpha particles with respect to deterministic effects must also be considered. Expected safe levels of exposure are available for the protection of natural populations of aquatic biota (10 mGy d(-1)) and terrestrial plants (10 mGy d(-1)) and animals (1 mGy d(-1)) and are appropriate for use in all radiological ERA tiers, provided that appropriate exposure assumptions are used. Caution must be exercised (and a thorough justification provided) if more restrictive limits are selected, to ensure that the supporting data are of high quality, reproducible, and clearly relevant to the protection of natural populations.     

GRADE: Assessing the quality of evidence in environmental and occupational health

There is high demand in environmental health for adoption of a structured process that evaluates and integrates evidence while making decisions and recommendations transparent. The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) framework holds promise to address this demand. For over a decade, GRADE has been applied successfully to areas of clinical medicine, public health, and health policy, but experience with GRADE in environmental and occupational health is just beginning. Environmental and occupational health questions focus on understanding whether an exposure is a potential health hazard or risk, assessing the exposure to understand the extent and magnitude of risk, and exploring interventions to mitigate exposure or risk. Although GRADE offers many advantages, including its flexibility and methodological rigor, there are features of the different sources of evidence used in environmental and occupational health that will require further consideration to assess the need for method refinement. An issue that requires particular attention is the evaluation and integration of evidence from human, animal, in vitro, and in silico (computer modeling) studies when determining whether an environmental factor represents a potential health hazard or risk. Assessment of the hazard of exposures can produce analyses for use in the GRADE evidence-to-decision (EtD) framework to inform risk-management decisions about removing harmful exposures or mitigating risks. The EtD framework allows for grading the strength of the recommendations based on judgments of the certainty in the evidence (also known as quality of the evidence), as well as other factors that inform recommendations such as social values and preferences, resource implications, and benefits. GRADE represents an untapped opportunity for environmental and occupational health to make evidence-based recommendations in a systematic and transparent manner. The objectives of this article are to provide an overview of GRADE, discuss GRADE's applicability to environmental health, and identify priority areas for method assessment and development.     

深圳市经济与环境协调发展的演进分析

经济与环境的协调发展是实现可持续发展的重要途径。以深圳地区为例。通过指标体系和评价基础构建、评价方法论证及实证研究等环节。对深圳市过去15年社会经济子系绫和资源环境子系统的发展水平及其协调发展程度的演进特征进行了研究。结果表明，协调性评价可以有效的揭示各种关键性发展问题。为相关政策制定提供科学依据；深圳市目前的社会经济发展和资源环境利用与保护工作均相对走在了全国的前列。基本满足了生态市建设的要求；今后，激活高端服务业发展步伐。采取更为严格的资源环境标准约束社会经济发展和城市建设。将成为实现地区可持续发展的主要任务。     

莱茵河流域综合管理和生态修复模式及其启示

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