Exploring diversity in soil fertility management of smallholder farms in western Kenya: I. Heterogeneity at region and farm scale

The processes of nutrient depletion and soil degradation that limit productivity of smallholder African farms are spatially heterogeneous. Causes of variability in soil fertility management at different scales of analysis are both biophysical and socio-economic. Such heterogeneity is categorised in this study, which quantifies its impact on nutrient flows and soil fertility status at region and farm scales, as a first step in identifying spatial and temporal niches for targeting of soil fertility management strategies and technologies. Transects for soil profile observation, participatory rural appraisal techniques and classical soil sampling and chemical analysis were sampled across 60 farms in three sub-locations (Emuhaia, Shinyalu, Aludeka), which together represent much of the variability found in the highlands of western Kenya. Five representative farm types were identified using socio-economic information and considering production activities, household objectives and the main constraints faced by farmers. Soil fertility management and nutrient resource flows were studied for each farm type and related to differences in soil fertility status at farm scale. Farm types 1 and 2 were the wealthiest; the former relied on off-farm income and farmed small pieces of land (0.6–1.1 ha) while the latter farmed relatively large land areas (1.6–3.8 ha) mainly with cash crops. The poorest farm type 5 also farmed small pieces of land (0.4–1.0 ha) but relied on low wages derived from working for wealthier farmers. Both farm types 1 and 5 relied on off-farm earnings and sold the least amounts of farm produce to the market, though the magnitude of their cash, labour and nutrient flows was contrasting. Farms of types 3 and 4 were intermediate in size and wealth, and represented different crop production strategies for self-consumption and the market. Average grain yields fluctuated around 1 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ for all farm types and sub-locations. Grain production by farms of types 4 and 5 was much below annual family requirements, estimated at 170 kg person⁻¹ year⁻¹. Household wealth and production orientation affected the pattern of resource flow at farm scale. In the land-constrained farms of type 1, mineral fertilisers were often used more intensively (ca. 50 kg ha⁻¹), though with varying application rates (14–92 kg ha⁻¹). The use of animal manure in such small farms (e.g. 2.2 t year⁻¹) represented intensities of use of up to 8 t ha⁻¹, and a net accumulation of C and macronutrients brought into the farm by livestock. In farms of type 5, intensities of use of mineral and organic fertilisers ranged between 0–12 kg ha⁻¹ and 0–0.5 t ha⁻¹, respectively. A consistent trend of decreasing input use from farm types 1–5 was generally observed, but nutrient resources and land management practices (e.g. fallow) differed enormously between sub-locations. Inputs of nutrients were almost nil in Aludeka farms. Both inherent soil properties and management explained the variability found in soil fertility status. Texture explained the variation observed in soil C and related total N between sub-locations, whereas P availability varied mainly between farm types as affected by input use.     

Energy flow modeling and sensitivity analysis of inputs for canola production in Iran

This study examines energy use patterns and the relationship between energy inputs and yield for canola production in Golestan province of Iran. Data used in this study were obtained from 130 randomly selected canola farms using a face to face survey. The results revealed that total energy of 17,786.36 MJ ha⁻¹ was required for canola production and fertilizer, diesel fuel and electricity were the main energy consuming inputs. Energy use efficiency and energy productivity were 3.02 and 0.12 kg MJ⁻¹, respectively. Moreover, in specifying a functional relationship the Cobb-Douglas production function was applied and the results showed that machinery, fertilizer, diesel fuel and water for irrigation energies significantly contributed to yield. Also, the marginal physical productivity (MPP) technique was applied to analyze the sensitivity of energy inputs. It was found that, canola production had more sensitivity on machinery, fertilizer and water for irrigation energies; so that an additional use of 1 MJ from each of the machinery, total fertilizer and water for irrigation would lead to an increase in production by 0.93, 0.61 and 0.24 kg, respectively. However, electricity and seed energies were contributed negatively to yield, which may result in inverse effect on yield and impose risks to the environment.     

Comparing intensive,extensified and organic grassland farming in southern Germany by process life cycle assessment

To reduce the environmental burden of agriculture, suitable methods to comprehend and assess the impact on natural resources are needed. One of the methods considered is the life cycle assessment (LCA) method, which was used to assess the environmental impacts of 18 grassland farms in three different farming intensities — intensive, extensified, and organic — in the Allgäu region in southern Germany. Extensified and organic compared with intensive farms could reduce negative effects in the abiotic impact categories of energy use, global warming potential (GWP) and ground water mainly by renouncing mineral nitrogen fertilizer. Energy consumption of intensive farms was 19.1 GJ ha⁻¹ and 2.7 GJ t⁻¹ milk, of extensified and organic farms 8.7 and 5.9 GJ ha⁻¹ along with 1.3 and 1.2 GJ t⁻¹ milk, respectively. Global warming potential was 9.4, 7.0 and 6.3 CO₂-equivalents ha⁻¹ and 1.3, 1.0 and 1.3 CO₂-equivalents t⁻¹ milk for the intensive, extensified and organic farms, respectively. Acidification calculated in SO₂-equivalents was high, but the extensified (119 kg SO₂ ha⁻¹) and the organic farms (107 kg SO₂ ha⁻¹) emit a lower amount compared with the intensive farms (136 kg SO₂ ha⁻¹). Eutrophication potential computed in PO₄-equivalents was higher for intensive (54.2 kg PO₄ ha⁻¹) compared with extensified (31.2 kg PO₄ ha⁻¹) and organic farms (13.5 kg PO₄ ha⁻¹). Farmgate balances for N (80.1, 31.4 and 31.1 kg ha⁻¹) and P (5.3, 4.5 and −2.3 kg ha⁻¹) for intensive, extensified and organic farms, respectively, indicate the different impacts on ground and surface water quality. Analysing the impact categories biodiversity, landscape image and animal husbandry, organic farms had clear advantages in the indicators number of grassland species, grazing cattle, layout of farmstead and herd management, but indices in these categories showed a wide range and are partly independent of the farming system.     

Nitrogen fertilizer reduction in rice production for two consecutive years in the Taihu Lake area

Agricultural activities are the main source of non-point pollution in the Taihu Lake region, and therefore reduction of nitrogen (N) fertilizer is imperative in this area. A two-year experiment was carried out in a paddy field of summer rice-winter wheat rotation in the Taihu Lake area, and the rice growing seasons were mainly concerned in this research. Grain yield, N accumulation at rice crucial stages, N use efficiency, as well as N losses via run off during rice growing season were determined under different N application rates. No significant differences were observed in grain yield under N fertilizer application rates of 135-270 kg N ha⁻¹ (50-100% of the conventional N application rate). Nitrogen accumulation before the heading stage (Pre-NA) accounted for 61-95% of total nitrogen absorption in mature rice, and was positively correlated with straw dry matter at harvest. Positive correlations were found between Pre-NA and straw (0.53, p < 0.05), and between grain yield and N accumulation after the heading stage (Post-NA) (0.58, p < 0.05), suggesting that increasing nitrogen accumulation after the heading stage is crucial for grain yield improvement. Poor agronomic efficiency of applied N (AE_N), partial factor productivity of applied N (PFP_N) and internal utilization efficiency of applied N (IE_N) were observed for the higher soil fertility and a higher N fertilizer input; a simple N fertilizer reduction could significantly increase the nitrogen use efficiency in this region. Nitrogen loss via runoff was positively linearly related to N application rates and severely affected by rainfall events. The highest-yielding N rates were around 232-257 kg N ha⁻¹, accounting for 86-95% of the conventional N application rates for the rice season. To reduce N losses and enhance N use efficiency, the recommendable N fertilization rate should be lower than that of the highest yield rate for rice season. Our findings indicated that nitrogen fertilizer reduction in the Taihu Lake area is feasible and necessary for maintaining grain yield, enhancing nitrogen use efficiency, and reducing environmental impact. However, the longer-term yield sustainability for the proper N application rate needs to be further investigated.     

Nutrient budgets: sustainability assessment of rainfed lowland rice-based systems in northeast Thailand

In northeast Thailand, the sustainability of rainfed lowland rice-based systems, the dominant land-use system (LUS) in the region, is a concern for the welfare of the population in this relatively poor region. Poor soil fertility and low inputs are seen as major causes of this lack of sustainability. In this context, the assessment of nutrient budgets is seen as a powerful tool for the assessment of critical components of the sustainability of this particular LUS. Biophysical, socioeconomic, and management-related data on the farming systems were collected for 30 farms in Ubon Ratchathani Province, northeast Thailand. A relational database system (RDBS) was developed to manage and analyze the data. The RDBS includes a calculation procedure for the semi-automatic generation of partial nutrient balances. Partial nutrient balances are good indicators for some critical components of sustainability, and important for decision support on soil fertility management when considered with the additional factors that are required for a full nutrient balance.For the rice-based systems of 30 farms, mean partial balances were 12 kg N ha⁻¹, 8 kg P ha⁻¹, and 7 kg K ha⁻¹ per year. Large variations in partial N, P, and K balances exist among different farms and, even more so, for different land utilization types (LUTs). The LUTs are distinct cropping system–management combinations that occur down to the subfield level. Many of the partial balances assessed were negative.Farmers manage nutrients for similar parcels of land in very different ways. This results in the observed large variation in partial nutrient balances, even for the same type of land use within the same farm. These results confirm the high inter-farm and intra-farm variability for partial balances of N, P, and K of several preliminary studies. Farmer interviews and field surveys revealed that different socioeconomic factors appear to be related with inter- and intra-farm variability in nutrient budgets. In addition, the socioeconomic component of the case study revealed that diversification of income sources, particularly off-farm employment, had a larger impact on household income than rice production. Furthermore, while many less well-off households had a greater reliance on rice production, many farms with high off-farm and non-rice farm income had a higher total production of rice.The nutrient balance approach, starting with partial nutrient balances, may become an important component of a dynamic and site-specific decision support tool (DST) for nutrient management, and a relational database of the form used in this study may become a key element.     

Managing crop residues, fertilizers and leaf litters to improve soil C, nutrient balances, and the grain yield of rice and wheat cropping systems in Thailand and Australia

This paper reports on the influence that residue and fertilizer management have on nutrient balances, soil organic matter (SOM) dynamics, and crop yields of a flooded rice system in northeast Thailand (1992–1997) and a wheat–forage legume rotation in eastern Australia (1992–1998). Both soils had been subject to at least 18 years of cultivation and had lost up to 90% of the original labile (C_L) and 85% of the total carbon (C_T).For the rainfed rice cropping systems of northeast Thailand, a system is described in which small applications of leaf litter from locally grown trees are applied annually to rice paddy soils prior to transplanting. Annual applications of 1500 kg ha⁻¹ of leaf litter from different locally grown shrubs for five seasons resulted in increases in rice grain yield in 1997 of between 20 and 26% above the no-leaf litter control. Nutrient balances, determined by the difference between the inputs (fertilizer and added leaf litters) and outputs (grain and straw), indicated net positive balances of up to 457 kg N ha⁻¹, and 60 kg P ha⁻¹, after five seasons of leaf litter applications. Sulfur and potassium balances resulted in net deficits of up to −13 kg S ha⁻¹ and −52 kg P ha⁻¹, where no leaf litter was applied and rice straw was removed following harvest. Soil carbon (C) concentrations increased significantly only where higher fertilizer rate and rice stubble retention were combined.The poor management of fertilizers and crop residues, and excessive cultivation has also resulted in large soil fertility losses in the grain growing areas of Eastern Australia. After five wheat and two legume/fallow crops, negative N balances of up to −303 kg ha⁻¹ were calculated for the treatments where wheat stubble was not retained and bare fallow leys were used. The balance of nutrients such as K, which are contained in larger proportions in stubble, were found to be up to −362 kg ha⁻¹ on the straw-removed treatments and up to +29 kg ha⁻¹ on the straw-retained treatments. Forage legume leys resulted in short term increases in C_L and the carbon management index (CMI).Sustainable farming systems require that crop yields are stable through the maintenance of soil fertility and the balance of nutrients in the system. Increases in soil C levels require sustained periods of balanced fertilization and residue retention.     

Soil quality alteration by mouldboard ploughing in a commercial farm devoted to no-tillage under Mediterranean conditions

In semi-arid Mediterranean areas, studies about conservation tillage (CT) systems have demonstrated advantages in crop yield, soil water storage and soil protection. However, the benefits observed with CT in trials with experimental plots (normally of small dimensions) might not be so clear in large commercial farms. In many areas of SW Spain, farmers often do an occasional tillage with mouldboard ploughing (MP) to avoid potential compaction problems and to encourage the emergence of seedlings. The present study deals with the effect of the application of MP on soil quality: total organic carbon, water soluble carbon, active carbon, microbial biomass carbon, dehydrogenase, β-glucosidase and o-diphenol oxidase activities and crop development (wheat) in a commercial farm devoted to no-tillage (NT) since 1995. In 2006, MP was applied on a band of the soil, while the rest was left under the strict conservation system. The direct and residual effects of MP in the two subsequent years were evaluated. In the first year MP caused a decrease in soil quality that persisted in the following two years. Emergence, nutrient accumulation, nutrient efficiency ratios and yield of wheat were slightly enhanced by MP in the first year. However, this trend was the opposite in the two subsequent years. Although in other scenarios traditional tillage has been applied to avoid soil compaction and to increase crop yield, under our experimental conditions the occasional mouldboard ploughing application was not justified.     

采用保护性耕作对减少水稻产量损失的实证分析——基于4省1080个稻农的调研数据

干旱和洪涝是造成水稻减产最主要的自然灾害,稻农通过采用保护性耕作可以减少其对水稻的产量损失。基于2013—2015年中国水稻主产区1 080个水稻农户的调研面板数据,论文采用内生转换模型,实证分析了稻农通过采用保护性耕作应对干旱或洪涝的效果,并分别估计了采用者和未采用者的水稻单产情况。实证结果表明:1)采用者的水稻单产远远高于未采用者的水稻单产;2)在反事实假设情况下,如果采用者未采用保护性耕作,其水稻产量将相应减产457.95 kg/hm~2(约7%);如果未采用者采用保护性耕作,其水稻产量将相应增产225 kg/hm~2(约4%);3)户主种植经验、受教育年限和公共服务可得性正向影响稻农的采用行为。最后,论文建议政府应大力推广保护性耕作技术,加大对抗逆水稻品种的培育,加强对农业生产资料的投入和管理,扩大公共服务的覆盖范围。     

The potential to increase soil carbon stocks through reduced tillage or organic material additions in England and Wales: A case study

Results from the UK were reviewed to quantify the impact on climate change mitigation of soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks as a result of (1) a change from conventional to less intensive tillage and (2) addition of organic materials including farm manures, digested biosolids, cereal straw, green manure and paper crumble. The average annual increase in SOC deriving from reduced tillage was 310 kg C ± 180 kg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Even this accumulation of C is unlikely to be achieved in the UK and northwest Europe because farmers practice rotational tillage. N₂O emissions may increase under reduced tillage, counteracting increases in SOC. Addition of biosolids increased SOC (in kg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ t⁻¹ dry solids added) by on average 60 ± 20 (farm manures), 180 ± 24 (digested biosolids), 50 ± 15 (cereal straw), 60 ± 10 (green compost) and an estimated 60 (paper crumble). SOC accumulation declines in long-term experiments (>50 yr) with farm manure applications as a new equilibrium is approached. Biosolids are typically already applied to soil, so increases in SOC cannot be regarded as mitigation. Large increases in SOC were deduced for paper crumble (>6 t C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) but outweighed by N₂O emissions deriving from additional fertiliser. Compost offers genuine potential for mitigation because application replaces disposal to landfill; it also decreases N₂O emission.     

Modelling nitrogen cycles of farming systems as basis of site- and farm-specific nitrogen management

The paper describes a model designed for analysing interrelated nitrogen (N) fluxes in farming systems. It combines the partial N balance, farm gate balance, barn balance and soil surface balance, in order to analyse all relevant N fluxes between the subsystems soil–plant–animal–environment and to reflect conclusive and consistent management systems. Such a system approach allows identifying the causes of varying N surplus and N utilisation.The REPRO model has been applied in the experimental farm Scheyern in southern Germany, which had been subdivided into an organic (org) and a conventional (con) farming system in 1992. Detailed series of long-term measuring data are available for the experimental farm, which have been used for evaluating the software for its efficiency and applicability under very different management, yet nearly equal site conditions.The organic farm is multi-structured with a legume-based crop rotation (N₂ fixation: 83 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). The livestock density is 1.4 LSU ha⁻¹. The farm is oriented on closed mass cycles.The conventional farm is a simple-structured cash crop system based on mineral N (N input 145 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Averaging the years 1999–2002, the organic crop rotation reached, with regard to the harvested products, about 81% (6.9 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) of the DM yield and about 93% (140 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) of the N removal of the conventional rotation. Related to the cropped area, the N surplus calculated for the organic rotation was 38 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ versus 44 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for the conventional rotation. The N utilisation reached 0.77 (org) and 0.79 (con), respectively. The different structure of the farms favoured an enhancement of the soil organic nitrogen stock (35 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) in the organic crop rotation and caused a decline in the conventional system (−24 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Taking account of these changes, which were substantiated by measurements, N surplus in the organic rotation decreased to 3 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, while it increased to 68 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in the conventional system. The adjusted N utilisation value amounted to 0.98 (org) and 0.69 (con), respectively.     

太湖流域农户环境友好型技术采纳行为及其环境和经济效应评价——以测土配方施肥技术为例

论文基于太湖流域上游地区221 户水稻生产农户调查数据,利用Probit 模型分析了农户采纳测土配方施肥技术的影响因素,然后构建投入需求和产出供给方程,评价了测土配方施肥技术采纳的环境和经济效应。研究表明,平均年龄越小、家庭耐用资产状况越好以及上一年与农技推广人员接触次数越多的农户,越倾向于选择测土配方施肥技术,而受教育年限较少或较多的农户都不愿意选择该技术。测土配方施肥技术确实能够起到降低化肥施用量和提高水稻产量的双重作用,控制其他条件,测土配方施肥技术采用率每增加1%,化肥施用量降低0.09%(0.45 kg/hm²),而水稻单产提高0.04%(2.91 kg/hm²)。若研究区域实现测土配方施肥全面推广应用,将可进一步减少化肥用量34.91 kg/hm²,同时提高水稻产量223.98 kg/hm²,具有较可观的环境和经济效应。但是测土配方施肥技术的实际推广进程缓慢,项目管理实施也不够规范,为此,有必要加大测土配方施肥技术研究投入,加强对技术的宣传和培训工作,同时结合示范户的榜样作用,以点带面促进该技术的深入推广和规范实施。     

Greenhouse gas emissions from rice based cropping systems: Economic and technologic challenges and opportunities

Recent market slump in rice, less rainfall during monsoon, high temperature and scarcity of water during dry season leads to lower grain yield and less profit from rice cultivation in India. Farmers’ grow upland crops like chickpea (Cicer arietinum), greengram (Vigna radiate), mustard (Brassica nigra), corn (Zea maize), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), potato (Solanum tuberosum), sunflower (Helianthus annuus) etc. along with rice (Oryza sativa) during the dry season. However, knowledge of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from these rice based cropping systems is very limited. In the present study four rice based cropping systems was studied along with rice-rice rotation system as control in respect of GHG emission, yield potential and economic feasibility. Conventional plantation and fertilizer application methodology was followed for each crop. Methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) flux from field plots were studied with conventional closed chamber method using gas chromatograph. CH₄ flux was recorded highest from rice-rice rotation plots (304.25 kg ha⁻¹). N₂O flux was recorded 1.02 kg ha⁻¹ from rice-rice rotation system during wet season. However, during wet season, higher N₂O flux (1.93 kg ha⁻¹) was recorded from rice-potato-sesame rotation plots. Annual N₂O flux was also recorded significantly low (3.42 kg ha⁻¹) from rice-rice rotation plots and high (6.19 kg ha⁻¹) from rice-chickpea-greengram rotation plots. Significantly lower annual grain yield was recorded from rice-rice rotation plots (9.25 Mg ha⁻¹) whereas it was 18.84 Mg rice eq ha⁻¹ from rice-potato-sesame rotation system. The global warming potential (GWP) of rice-rice rotation system was recorded significantly high (8.62 Mg CO₂ ha⁻¹) compare to plots with different rice based cropping systems. Computing all C-emission from cradle-to-grave, highest total C-cost was recorded from the rice-rice rotation system ($62.00 ha⁻¹). We have made an attempt to calculate the C-credit of different rice based cropping systems by considering the difference of C-cost with control. The study suggests that the rice-potato-sesame is most sustainable among different cropping system studied in terms of economic profit ($62.00 ha⁻¹). We have made an attempt to calculate the C-credit of different rice based cropping systems by considering the difference of C-cost with control. The study suggests that the rice-potato-sesame is most sustainable among different cropping system studied in terms of economic profit (1248.21 ha⁻¹) and C-credit ($38.60 ha⁻¹). The result of the study may be limited to the study region; however, the study has potential use in respect to the development of agriculture practice for adaptation to climate change.     

东北三省不同规模养殖场畜禽饲料和粪便中锌含量特征

为了解东北三省不同规模养殖场畜禽饲料和粪便中w(Zn)分布及粪便Zn的农田输入量,选取长春、哈尔滨等养殖密集城市,分别从小、中、大规模养殖场随机采取了25、30、49个畜禽饲料样品和28、28、54个粪便样品进行研究. 结果表明:吉林、黑龙江、辽宁三省猪饲料中的w(Zn)平均值分别为209.35、120.00和117.58mg/kg;牛饲料中w(Zn)平均值分别为116.73、120.26和134.04mg/kg;鸡饲料中w(Zn)平均值分别为95.51、77.59和97.23mg/kg. 在养殖规模上,猪饲料、牛饲料中w(Zn)平均值均以小规模养殖场最高,分别为238.91、156.28mg/kg;而鸡饲料中w(Zn)平均值以大规模养殖场最高,为103.72mg/kg. 对比畜禽粪便中的w(Zn)分布可知,吉林、黑龙江、辽宁三省猪粪中w(Zn)平均值分别为630.26、596.57和692.59mg/kg;牛粪中w(Zn)平均值分别为132.04、108.88和138.82mg/kg;鸡粪中w(Zn)平均值分别为363.67、201.82和246.45mg/kg. 在养殖规模上,猪粪、牛粪、鸡粪中w(Zn)平均值均以大规模养殖场最高,分别为691.56、136.13和384.15mg/kg. 畜禽粪便与饲料中的w(Zn)呈显著正相关(P<0.05). 根据东北三省畜禽养殖量及粪便中w(Zn)平均值推算,每年有12442.7t 的Zn通过畜禽粪便农用输入农田.      

Modelling greenhouse gas emissions from European conventional and organic dairy farms

Agriculture is an important contributor to global emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG), in particular for methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). Emissions from farms with a stock of ruminant animals are particularly high due to CH₄ emissions from enteric fermentation and manure handling, and due to the intensive nitrogen (N) cycle on such farms leading to direct and indirect N₂O emissions. The whole-farm model, FarmGHG, was designed to quantify the flows of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) on dairy farms. The aim of the model was to allow quantification of effects of management practices and mitigation options on GHG emissions. The model provides assessments of emissions from both the production unit and the pre-chains. However, the model does not quantify changes in soil C storage.Model dairy farms were defined within five European agro-ecological zones for both organic and conventional systems. The model farms were all defined to have the same utilised agricultural area (50 ha). Cows on conventional and organic model farms were defined to achieve the same milk yield, so the basic difference between conventional and organic farms was expressed in the livestock density. The organic farms were defined to be 100% self-sufficient with respect to feed. The conventional farms, on the other hand, import concentrates as supplementary feed and their livestock density was defined to be 75% higher than the organic farm density. Regional differences between farms were expressed in the milk yield, the crop rotations, and the cow housing system and manure management method most common to each region.The model results showed that the emissions at farm level could be related to either the farm N surplus or the farm N efficiency. The farm N surplus appeared to be a good proxy for GHG emissions per unit of land area. The GHG emissions increased from 3.0 Mg CO₂-eq ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ at a N surplus of 56 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ to 15.9 Mg CO₂-eq ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ at a N surplus of 319 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. The farm N surplus can relatively easily be determined on practical farms from the farm records of imports and exports and the composition of the crop rotation. The GHG emissions per product unit (milk or metabolic energy) were quite closely related to the farm N efficiency, and a doubling of the N efficiency from 12.5 to 25% reduced the emissions per product unit by ca. 50%. The farm N efficiency may therefore be used as a proxy for comparing the efficiencies of farms with respect to supplying products with a low GHG emission.     

施氮和水分管理对光合碳在土壤-水稻系统间分配的量化研究

施肥和水分管理是影响水稻生长的两个关键因素,探讨水肥耦合条件下光合碳在"水稻-土壤"系统输入与分配动态,对深入解析稻田土壤碳循环具有重要意义.本研究通过盆栽试验,选用籼性常规水稻品种(中早39),采用13C-CO_2连续标记技术,量化研究施氮和水分管理对光合碳在"水稻-土壤"系统中分配的影响.结果表明:施氮增加了水稻地上部干物质重和碳、氮含量,却显著降低了水稻根冠比;干湿交替使施氮条件下的水稻地上部全碳、全氮含量较持续淹水处理分别提高了22%和33%,根系中全碳、全氮含量分别提高了36%、44%,这表明施氮有利于水稻地上部生长,而干湿交替显著促进了水稻根系的生长.施氮显著增加水稻地上部13C含量,与不施氮处理相比增加了32%~83%;施氮使光合碳在水稻地上部的回收率增加6%~32%,在根系的回收率减少18%~59%.水分管理对13C分配的影响表现为:连续标记22 d后,在施氮条件下,干湿交替使水稻地上部、根系13C量均有一定量的增加;不施氮条件下,干湿交替与持续淹水处理相比,地上部13C量减少10.3mg·pot-1,回收率降低了11%~12%;根系13C量增加1.9 mg·pot-1,回收率提高了24%~57%.施氮和干湿交替都显著增加了13C在根际土壤中的累积与回收率.因此,施氮增加了光合碳在土壤-水稻系统中的累积,但降低了光合碳在根系中的分配,干湿交替比持续淹水更利于光合碳向土壤中的传输与累积,水肥耦合管理显著调控了光合碳的传输与分配.该研究进一步量化了水肥管理条件下水稻光合碳的分配及其在土壤有机碳库中的传输特征,为稻田水肥管理、水稻土有机质积累持续机制提供了理论依据和数据支撑.     

Soil characteristics under cash crop farming in upland areas of Sarawak,Malaysia

This study discusses soil fertility under perennial cash crop farming (para rubber, Hevea brasiliensis; black pepper, Piper nigrum; oil palm, Elaeis guineensis) conducted by local farmers and an oil palm estate in an upland area of Sarawak, Malaysia, in comparison with the surrounding secondary forests. In the farmlands of the local farmers, rubber farming was conducted without fertilizer application, while 2–5 t ha^?1 of NPK compounds were applied annually on pepper farms. Soils under rubber farming were acidic with poor nutrient contents, resembling soils in secondary forests. In pepper farms, soils were less acidic and showed high nutrient contents, especially with respect to available P and exchangeable Ca. This trend became stronger with increasing farming duration. Fertilizers applied around pepper vines appeared to migrate and spread across the fields. Bulk density and hardness of surface soils were higher in pepper farms than in secondary forests, indicating soil compaction due to field works. In the oil palm estate, annual fertilizer application rates were moderate at 0.4–0.8 t ha^?1 of NPK compound fertilizers. However, the soil properties in the oil palm estate were similar to those of the small-scale pepper farms. Close to the bases of the palms where fertilizers usually are applied, the contents of exchangeable Ca and available P were high. Nutrient uptake by the dense root systems of the palms seemed to prevent excessive loss of nutrients through leaching. Loss of soil organic matter and deterioration of soil physical properties were brought about by terrace bench construction, but the soils seemed to recover to some extent over time. In conclusion, technologies such as intercropping and the appropriate allocation of different crops to specific locations as well as the proper selection and dosage of fertilizers should be developed and adopted to improve fertilizer efficiency and prevent water pollution due to fertilizer wash-off from farmlands.     

秸秆还田与化肥减量配施对稻-菜轮作下土壤养分及酶活性的影响

以西南丘陵山区紫色土为研究对象,2013~2014年在重庆市江津区先锋镇布置田间试验,采用一年两熟,水稻-儿菜轮作制度,分析了秸秆还田与化肥减量配合施用对作物产量,土壤养分及酶活性的影响,为稻-菜轮作系统中养分资源优化管理的施肥方式提供科学依据,实现农业秸秆的循环利用.结果表明,秸秆还田与化肥减量配施处理能提高水稻和儿菜的产量,分别比常规施肥处理(F)增产3.0%~17.9%和12.2%~36.4%,经稻-菜轮作后,第二季(C3)的水稻产量比第一季(C1)水稻增加了820~1 240 kg·hm-2.与F处理相比,稻-菜轮作下连续秸秆覆盖与化肥减量配施的土壤pH提高了0.06~0.55个单位,特别是秸秆全量还田(AS)与70%~80%化肥(F)配施处理(70%~80%F+AS)对土壤pH的改善效果最佳,同时80%F+AS处理的土壤有机质最高,达到了41.01 g·kg-1.对土壤有效养分含量而言,80%F+AS处理的土壤碱解氮(110~178 mg·kg-1)和有效磷(31.3~64.0 mg·kg-1)含量最高,但过多的秸秆还田量反而不利于土壤有效磷累积.秸秆还田与化肥减量配施提高了土壤酶活性,其中80%F+AS和70%F+AS处理对脲酶活性提高效果较为显著;80%F+AS处理的过氧化氢酶在前两季度下活性均最高;随着耕种时间的增加,特别是C3季度下,70%F+AS和80%F+AS处理的磷酸酶活性较F处理显著提高了45.2%和48.2%.因此,西南丘陵山区紫色土在稻-菜轮作下,70%~80%F+AS处理即秸秆全量覆盖还田与化肥减量20%~30%的配施方式是该地区的最优施肥方式.     

连续4 a施有机肥降低紫泥田镉活性与稻米镉含量

商品有机肥由于可能含镉(Cd),并在施入后对水稻土中Cd的有效性具有"抑制"和"激活"的双重作用,导致施有机肥的稻米降Cd效应目前仍存在较大不确定性.通过选取湘东地区典型水稻土(紫泥田土种),连续4 a定位监测了大田施用商品有机肥对双季稻稻米的降Cd效应,探索稻米Cd含量与双季稻不同生育期土壤Cd有效性、土壤因子(pH、土壤活性有机碳组分与铁氧化物)的关系.结果表明,施有机肥降低双季稻糙米Cd含量28%～56%,且晚稻糙米Cd含量降幅(43%～56%)高于早稻糙米Cd含量的降幅(28%～45%),降幅的年际波动小.一方面,施有机肥也导致双季稻某些生育期(分蘖盛期自齐穗期)土壤有效态Cd含量平均下降6%～7%;土壤交换态Cd含量降低11%,土壤有机结合态Cd含量提高14%,直接反映土壤Cd有效性的降低.另一方面,施有机肥也稳定提升土壤pH值0.1～0.3个单位,促进土壤环境由酸性向微酸性发展,土壤活性有机碳组分(轻组有机碳、粗颗粒有机碳和细颗粒有机碳)含量大幅提升(53%、 77%和107%),间接反映土壤Cd有效性的降低.本研究表明,紫泥田连续施有机肥后,土壤Cd有效性下降是双季稻米C...     

Assessing the potential for greenhouse gas mitigation in intensively managed annual cropping systems at the regional scale

We predicted changes in yields and direct net soil greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes from converting conventional to alternative management practices across one of the world's most productive agricultural regions, the Central Valley of California, using the DAYCENT model. Alternative practices included conservation tillage, winter cover cropping, manure application, a 25% reduction in N fertilizer input and combinations of these. Alternative practices were evaluated for all unique combinations of crop rotation, climate, and soil types for the period 1997-2006. The crops included were alfalfa, corn, cotton, melon, safflower, sunflower, tomato, and wheat. Our predictions indicate that, adopting alternative management practices would decrease yields up to 5%. Changes in modeled SOC and net soil GHG fluxes corresponded to values reported in the literature. Average potential reductions of net soil GHG fluxes with alternative practices ranged from −0.7 to −3.3 Mg CO₂-eq ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in the Sacramento Valley and −0.5 to −2.5 Mg CO₂-eq ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for the San Joaquin Valley. While adopting a single alternative practice led to modest net soil GHG flux reductions (on average −1 Mg CO₂-eq ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹), combining two or more of these practices led to greater decreases in net soil GHG fluxes of up to −3 Mg CO₂-eq ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. At the regional scale, the combination of winter cover cropping with manure application was particularly efficient in reducing GHG emissions. However, GHG mitigation potentials were mostly non-permanent because 60-80% of the decreases in net soil GHG fluxes were attributed to increases in SOC, except for the reduced fertilizer input practice, where reductions were mainly attributed to decreased N₂O emissions. In conclusion, there are long-term GHG mitigation potentials within agriculture, but spatial and temporal aggregation will be necessary to reduce uncertainties around GHG emission reductions and the delivery risk of the associated C credits.     

广东省风能资源区划研究

论文以Surfer8.0以及地理信息系统(GIS)软件Citystar3.0为平台,利用广东省86个气象站历史测风资料以及沿海72个风能测风塔临时观测资料,计算广东省空间分辨率为1km×1km格点上风能参数,进行了广东省风能资源的宏观区划和风电场选址区划;估算出广东省离地面10m高度上全省及各区划的风能资源理论可开发量为7.50×10⁴MW,技术可开发量为5.89×10³MW。为广东省风电开发宏观规划以及大型风电场的微观选址提供了科学而且精细的资源依据。