Effect of fireworks on ambient air quality in Malta

Religious festivals (festas) in the densely populated Maltese archipelago (Central Mediterranean) are ubiquitous during summer when 86 of them are celebrated between June and October, each involving the burning of fireworks both in ground and aerial displays over a period of 3 days or longer per festival. We assessed the effect of fireworks on the air quality by comparing PM₁₀ and its content of Al, Ba, Cu, Sr and Sb which materials are used in pyrotechnic compositions. PM₁₀ was collected mainly from two sites, one in Malta (an urban background site) and the other in Gozo (a rural site) during July–August 2005 when 59 feasts were celebrated and September–October 2005 when only 11 feasts occurred. For both Malta and Gozo, PM₁₀ and metal concentration levels measured as weekly means were significantly higher during July–August compared to September–October and there exist strong correlations between PM₁₀ and total metal content. Additionally, for Malta dust, Al, Ba, Cu and Sr correlated strongly with each other and also with total concentration of all five metals. The same parameters measured in April 2006 in Malta were at levels similar to those found in the previous October. Ba and Sb in dust from the urban background site in Malta during July–August were at comparable or higher concentration than recently reported values in PM₁₀ from a heavily-trafficked London road and this suggests that these metals are locally not dominated by sources from roadside materials such as break liner wear but more likely by particulate waste from fireworks. Our findings point to the fact that festa firework displays contribute significantly and for a prolonged period every year to airborne dust in Malta where PM₁₀ is an intractable air quality concern. The presence in this dust of elevated levels of Ba and especially Sb, a possible carcinogen, is of concern to health.     

Evaluation of air quality zone classification methods based on ambient air concentration exposure

Air quality zones are used by regulatory authorities to implement ambient air standards in order to protect human health. Air quality measurements at discrete air monitoring stations are critical tools to determine whether an air quality zone complies with local air quality standards or is noncompliant. This study presents a novel approach for evaluation of air quality zone classification methods by breaking the concentration distribution of a pollutant measured at an air monitoring station into compliance and exceedance probability density functions (PDFs) and then using Monte Carlo analysis with the Central Limit Theorem to estimate long-term exposure. The purpose of this paper is to compare the risk associated with selecting one ambient air classification approach over another by testing the possible exposure an individual living within a zone may face. The chronic daily intake (CDI) is utilized to compare different pollutant exposures over the classification duration of 3 years between two classification methods. Historical data collected from air monitoring stations in Kuwait are used to build representative models of 1-hr NO₂ and 8-hr O₃ within a zone that meets the compliance requirements of each method. The first method, the “3 Strike” method, is a conservative approach based on a winner-take-all approach common with most compliance classification methods, while the second, the 99% Rule method, allows for more robust analyses and incorporates long-term trends. A Monte Carlo analysis is used to model the CDI for each pollutant and each method with the zone at a single station and with multiple stations. The model assumes that the zone is already in compliance with air quality standards over the 3 years under the different classification methodologies. The model shows that while the CDI of the two methods differs by 2.7% over the exposure period for the single station case, the large number of samples taken over the duration period impacts the sensitivity of the statistical tests, causing the null hypothesis to fail. Local air quality managers can use either methodology to classify the compliance of an air zone, but must accept that the 99% Rule method may cause exposures that are statistically more significant than the 3 Strike method.

Implications: A novel method using the Central Limit Theorem and Monte Carlo analysis is used to directly compare different air standard compliance classification methods by estimating the chronic daily intake of pollutants. This method allows air quality managers to rapidly see how individual classification methods may impact individual population groups, as well as to evaluate different pollutants based on dosage and exposure when complete health impacts are not known.     

interpretation of air quality data with respect to the national ambient air quality standards

San Diego Gas &; Electric has developed a quality assurance program for continuous emission monitors (CEM). Extractive, rather than in situ, monitors were selected as a result of an in-house evaluation program. Two extractive systems have been certified and a good operating and maintenance record has been established on these systems. A successful program requires the involvement and support of all affected personnel. It is desirable to have one or two key personnel coordinate the development of the program. It is also highly desirable to have good in-house source testing capabilities.     

Particulate composition characteristics under different ambient air quality conditions

Particulate compositions including elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), water-soluble ionic species, and elemental compositions were investigated during the period from 2004 to 2006 in southern Taiwan. The correlation between the pollutant standard index (PSI) of ambient air quality and the various particle compositions was also addressed in this study. PSI revealed a correlation with fine (r = 0.74) and coarse (r = 0.80) particulate matter (PM). PSI manifested a significant correlation with the amount of analyzed ionic species (r approximately 0.80) in coarse and fine particles and a moderate correlation with carbon content (r = 0.63) in fine particles; however, it showed no correlation with elemental content. Although the ambient air quality ranged from good to moderate, the ionic species including chloride (Cl-), nitrate (NO3-), sulfate (SO4(2-)), sodium (Na+), ammonium (NH4+), magnesium (Mg2+), and calcium (Ca2+) increased significantly (1.5-3.7 times for Daliao and 1.8-6.9 times for Tzouying) in coarse PM. For fine particles, NO3-, SO4(2-), NH4+, and potassium (K+) also increased significantly (1.3-2.4 times for Daliao and 2.8-9.6 times for Tzouying) when the air quality went from good to moderate. For meteorological parameters, temperature evidenced a slightly negative correlation with PM concentration and PSI value, which implied a high PM concentration in the low-temperature condition. This reflects the high frequency of PM episodes in winter and spring in southern Taiwan. In addition, the mixing height increase from 980 to 1450 m corresponds to the air quality condition changing from unhealthy to good.     

Assessment of ambient air quality in the port of Naples

Two experimental monitoring campaigns were carried out in 2012 to investigate the air quality in the port of Naples, the most important in southern Italy for traffic of passengers and one of the most important for goods. Therefore, it represents an important air pollution source located close to the city of Naples. The concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes) in the air were measured at 15 points inside the Naples port area through the use of passive samplers. In addition, a mobile laboratory was positioned in a fixed point inside the port area to measure continuous concentration of pollutants together with particulate matter, ambient parameters, and wind direction and intensity. The pollution levels monitored were compared with those observed in the urban area of Naples and in other Mediterranean ports. Even though the observation time was limited, measured concentrations were also compared with limit values established by European legislation. All the measured pollutants were below the limits with the exception of nitrogen dioxide: its average concentration during the exposition time exceeded the yearly limit value. A spatial analysis of data, according to the measured wind direction and intensity, provided information about the effects that ship emissions have on ambient air quality in the port area. The main evidence indicates that ship emissions influence sulfur dioxide concentration more than any other pollutants analyzed.

Implications: Two monitoring campaigns were carried out to measure BTEX, SO₂, NO₂, and PM₁₀ (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter <10 μm) air concentrations in the port of Naples. NO₂ hourly average and PM₁₀ daily average comply with European legislative standards. Spatial variation of pollutants long the axis corresponding to the prevailing wind direction seems to indicate a certain influence of ship emissions for SO₂. For NO₂ and PM₁₀, a correlation between concentrations in the harbor and those measured by the air quality monitoring stations sited in the urban area of Naples was observed, indicating a possible contribution of the near road traffic to the air pollution in the port of Naples.     

Analysis of primary fine particle national ambient air quality standard metrics

In accordance with the Clean Air Act, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is currently reviewing its National Ambient Air Quality Standards for particulate matter, which are required to provide an adequate margin of safety to populations, including susceptible subgroups. Based on the latest scientific, health, and technical information about particle pollution, EPA staff recommends establishing more protective health-based fine particle standards. Since the last standards review, epidemiologic studies have continued to find associations between short-term and long-term exposure to particulate matter and cardiopulmonary morbidity and mortality at current pollution levels. This study analyzed the spatial and temporal variability of fine particulate (PM2.5) monitoring data for the Northeast and the continental United States to assess the protectiveness of various levels, forms, and combinations of 24-hr and annual health-based standards currently recommended by EPA staff and the Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee. Recommended standards have the potential for modest or substantial increases in protection in the Northeast, ranging from an additional 13-83% of the population of the region who are living in areas not likely to meet new standards and thereby benefiting from compliance with more protective air pollution controls. Within recommended standard ranges, an optimal 24-hr (98th percentile)/annual standard suite occurs at 30/12 microg/m3, providing short- and long-term health protection for a substantial percentage of both Northeast (84%) and U.S. (78%) populations. In addition, the Northeast region will not benefit as widely as the nation as a whole if less stringent standards are selected. Should the 24-hr (98th percentile) standard be set at 35 microg/m3, Northeast and U.S. populations will receive 16-48% and 7-17% less protection than a 30 microg/m3 standard, respectively, depending on the level of the annual standard. A 30/12 microg/m3 standard suite also provides nearly equivalent 24-hr and annual control of PM2.5 distributions across the United States, thereby ensuring a more uniform and consistent level of protection than unmatched or "controlling" and "backstop" standards. This could occur even within EPA staff's recommended range of standard suites, where 22-43% of the monitors in the country could meet a controlling standard but fail to meet the combined backstop standard, resulting in inconsistent short- and long-term protection across the country. An equivalent standards combination of 30/12 microg/m3 would minimize the wide variation of protectiveness of 24-hr and annual PM2.5 concentrations. Furthermore, given recent associations of subdaily exposures and acute adverse health effects, in the absence of a subdaily averaging metric, a stringent 24-hr standard will more effectively control maximum hourly and multihourly peak concentrations than a weaker standard.     

Interpreting the eight-hour national ambient air quality standard for carbon monoxide

There are two principal approaches to the 8-hour carbon monoxide standard: (1) 8-hour moving averages that culminate with every clock hour, and (2) nonoverlapping averages for consecutive 8-hour intervals. Examination of 1972 data for three example sites (Newark, NJ, Camden, NJ, and Spokane, WA) shows that the maximum and the “second high” control values derived from moving averages can be at least 20% higher than corresponding values detected by the consecutive 8-hour intervals. The natural fluctuation in the time of day when the maximum occurs and the variability in episode length make it doubtful that any framework of consecutive 8-hour intervals can adequately portray the essential characteristics of CO exposure. Prudence recommends choice of the moving 8-hour average as more sensitive to actual maximum levels and to short episodes, more faithful to the body’s integrating response to CO exposure, and more equitable in presenting comparisons among stations with differing patterns of daily variation.     

The implosion of the Calgary General Hospital: ambient air quality issues

This paper discusses the implosion of a large inner-city hospital in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, on October 4, 1998. Stationary and mobile air monitoring conducted after the implosion indicated there were several short-term air quality issues, including significant temporal increases in total suspended particles, particulate matter (PM) with aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 10 microm (PM10), PM with aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 2.5 microm (PM2.5), asbestos, and airborne and settled lead. In addition, the implosion created a dust cloud that traveled much further than expected, out to 20 km. The ability of an implosion to effectively aerosolize building materials requires the removal of all friable and nonfriable forms of asbestos and all Pb-containing painted surfaces during pre-implosion preparatory work. Public advisories to mitigate personal exposure and indoor migration of the implosion dust cloud constituents should extend to 10 or 20 km around an implosion site. These findings point to a number of complex and problematic issues regarding implosions and safeguarding human health and suggest that implosions in metropolitan areas should be prohibited. Further work to characterize the public health risks of conventional versus implosion demolition is recommended.     

An on-line analysis of reduced sulfur gases in the ambient air surrounding a large industrial complex

In this study, the concentrations of reduced sulfur compounds (RSC: H₂S, CH₃SH, DMS, and DMDS) were continuously measured from an odor monitoring station over a 4-month period (August–November 2005) using an on-line GC system. The hourly measurement data of RSC, collected along with some major aromatic VOCs (benzene, toluene, xylene, etc.), approached the sum of 1500; the mean for all hourly H₂S was computed to be 295 ppt, while those of the others were seen at 7 (DMS), 1 (CH₃SH), and 0.4 ppt (DMDS). When these RSC data were compared across two seasons and on a 24 h scale basis, the values for either the summer or nighttime periods were generally high relative to their counterparts in the fall and daytime. Analysis of these RSC data generally suggests that most RSCs occur at some ppt concentration ranges and that their values frequently fall below detection limits (DL) values (except for H₂S). If the total number of effective data sets (i.e., above DL values) are compared to each other, the results tend to differ significantly between H₂S and the others: the proportion of effective number was as high as 75% for H₂S, while the others were very low (6% of DMS and even less than that for the others). The distributions of RSC were hence clearly distinguished from those of VOCs in that the determination of the latter was scarcely limited by the instrumental detectability. According to the present study, the H₂S data exhibit strong potential as the malodor tracers, while those of the other RSCs are unlikely due to the limited detectability. The overall results of this study hence suggest that several factors which include the selection of target compounds, the location of the monitoring points, and the scale (or number) of total monitoring points should be considered simultaneously to effectively track down the odor occurrence patterns in areas near strong source processes.     

Biochemical and cellular effects of electrophiles present in ambient air samples

Ambient vapor-phase samples collected in Riverside, California had shown that both redox and electrophilic activity were present, with the vapor phase containing higher levels of electrophiles than the particle phase. In this study, the biochemical effects of the vapor-phase electrophiles were examined using the purified thiol proteins, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) and KELCH-1 like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1). The results demonstrated that the thiol proteins were inactivated by the vapor-phase samples through covalent modifications. Next, two cellular responses, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)/mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase and NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), to the ambient vapor-phase samples were assessed in A549 and RAW 264.7 cell lines, respectively. The vapor-phase samples, at non-oxidative concentrations, increased phosphorylation of EGFR, which is negatively regulated by PTP1B, and its downstream MAP kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2. Activation of Nrf2, which requires Keap1 alkylation, and expression of its downstream proteins were also observed. The electrophilic compounds present in ambient vapor-phase were shown to modify cellular proteins through covalent modification and to activate diverse cellular responses that can lead to inflammatory and adaptive responses.     

Alfalfa nutritive quality for ruminant livestock as influenced by ambient air quality in west-central Alberta

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) nutritive quality response to ambient ozone (O(3)), sulfur dioxide (SO(2)) and oxides of nitrogen (NO(x)) were assessed at three locations in west-central Alberta, Canada (1998-2002). Yield data were segregated into high and low relative to overall median yield. Ozone concentrations (hourly median and 95th-percentile) and precipitation (P) contributed 69 and 29%, respectively, to the variability in crude protein (CP) concentration in low-yielding alfalfa, whereas mean temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH) collectively influenced 98% of the variation in CP in high-yielding alfalfa. Three-fourths of the accounted variation in relative feed value (RFV) of low-yielding alfalfa was attributable to P, T and RH, whereas median and 95th-percentile hourly O(3) concentrations and SO(2) and NO(x) exposure integrals contributed 25%. In contrast, air quality, (mainly O(3)) influenced 86% of the accounted variation in RFV of high-yielding alfalfa, and T and P collectively contributed 14%.     

Study of the effects of air pollution on textiles exposed to Cairo's ambient atmosphere

Cotton fabric (100% cotton) and synthetic fabric (65% polyester and 35% cotton) were exposed at five selected sites in urban and industrial districts in Cairo city for a period of 15 months. The changes in the physical properties of the exposed textiles were investigated. The results indicated that the tensile strength of all the exposed samples was decreased, for warp and weft directions by different ratios, at all sites as a function of time of exposure. The highest deterioration in tensile strength was 86.2%, detected for cotton samples exposed in the industrial area. The lowest percentage loss of tensile strength was 58%, detected in the purely residential area of low population density. The loss in tensile strength of synthetic textile samples ranged from 54 to 73%. The difference between the tensile strength for sheltered and unsheltered textile samples increased with increasing time of exposure, especially with increasing solar radiation intensity in the summer. The cotton fabric lost about 25% of its tensile strength, and the synthetic fabric lost about 19.5% of its tensile strength after 15 months exposure to direct solar radiation. The percentage loss of elongation (elasticity) for cotton and synthetic fabric ranged from 72% to 89% and from 67.2% to 88.2%, respectively. Several conclusions and recommendations are also given.     

萧山区环境空气质量变化及其影响因素分析

利用杭州市萧山区环境空气的监测资料,采用空气综合污染指数、空气污染指数(API)、Daniel趋势检验等评价和分析方法,研究了萧山区"十一五"期间(2005—2010年)环境空气质量的变化趋势及其影响因素。结果显示:(1)PM10是萧山区环境空气中的首要污染物。SO2、PM10浓度以及空气综合污染指数先升高后降低,总体呈现不显著下降趋势,整体环境空气质量在2007年后逐年改善。(2)空气中NO2污染负荷系数逐年上升,NO2/SO2和污染物相关性分析结果表明,萧山区空气污染特征正处于由煤烟型向汽车尾气型转变的初期阶段。(3)萧山区月均API呈现出7-9月4-6月1-3月10-12月的变化特征。(4)在持续快速增长、能源消耗逐年增加的情况下,萧山区环境空气质量的改善说明节能减排、产业升级、污染源综合治理、能源清洁使用等措施对改善环境空气质量起到了关键作用。     

Spatial interpretation of ambient air quality for the territory of the Czech Republic

A method for spatial interpretation and visualisation of measured air quality data is presented that may serve as a tool for ambient air quality characterisation using the least possible number of factors. This method enables comparison of different areas in relative terms and has practical consequences in decision making and public information. The 1996 data for the Czech Republic was used as a database. According to my results, not a single universal indicator can fully describe the ambient air quality albeit the three factors identified as "ambient air pollution", "ground-level ozone" and "wet atmospheric deposition" which are recommended. These selected factors represent three different aspects of ambient air quality and its impact on receptors. For the above factors black and white charts are presented classifying the Czech Republic territory into five categories as to relative ambient air quality. The air quality picture differs for the respective factors considerably.     

Short-term effects and economic burden assessment of ambient air pollution on hospitalizations for schizophrenia

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - The evidence&nbsp;on the health and economic impacts of air pollution with schizophrenia is scarce, especially in developing countries. In this...     

The effects of congestions tax on air quality and health

The “Stockholm Trial” involved a road pricing system to improve the air quality and reduce traffic congestion. The test period of the trial was January 3–July 31, 2006. Vehicles travelling into and out of the charge cordon were charged for every passage during weekdays. The amount due varied during the day and was highest during rush hours (20 SEK = 2.2 EUR, maximum 60 SEK per day). Based on measured and modelled changes in road traffic it was estimated that this system resulted in a 15% reduction in total road use within the charged cordon. Total traffic emissions in this area of NO_x and PM10 fell by 8.5% and 13%, respectively. Air quality dispersion modelling was applied to assess the effect of the emission reductions on ambient concentrations and population exposure. For the situations with and without the trial, meteorological conditions and other emissions than from road traffic were kept the same. The calculations show that, with a permanent congestion tax system like the Stockholm Trial, the annual average NO_x concentrations would be lower by up to 12% along the most densely trafficked streets. PM10 concentrations would be up to 7% lower. The limit values for both PM10 and NO₂ would still be exceeded along the most densely trafficked streets. The total population exposure of NO_x in Greater Stockholm (35 × 35 km with 1.44 million people) is estimated to decrease with a rather modest 0.23 μg m^?3. However, based on a long-term epidemiological study, that found an increased mortality risk of 8% per 10 μg m^?3 NO_x, it is estimated that 27 premature deaths would be avoided every year. According to life-table analysis this would correspond to 206 years of life gained over 10 years per 100 000 people following the trial if the effects on exposures would persist. The effect on mortality is attributed to road traffic emissions (likely vehicle exhaust particles); NO_x is merely regarded as an indicator of traffic exposure. This is only the tip of the ice-berg since reductions are expected in both respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity. This study demonstrates the importance of not only assessing the effects on air quality limit values, but also to make quantitative estimates of health impacts, in order to justify actions to reduce air pollution.