Experimental warming, not grazing, decreases rangeland quality on the Tibetan Plateau.

We investigated experimental warming and simulated grazing (clipping) effects on rangeland quality, as indicated by vegetation production and nutritive quality, in winter-grazed meadows and summer-grazed shrublands on the Tibetan Plateau, a rangeland system experiencing climatic and pastoral land use changes. Warming decreased total aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) by 40 g x m(-2) x yr(-1) at the meadow habitats and decreased palatable ANPP (total ANPP minus non-palatable forb ANPP) by 10 g x m(-2) x yr(-1) at both habitats. The decreased production of the medicinal forb Gentiana straminea and the increased production of the non-palatable forb Stellera chamaejasme with warming also reduced rangeland quality. At the shrubland habitats, warming resulted in less digestible shrubs, whose foliage contains 25% digestible dry matter (DDM), replacing more digestible graminoids, whose foliage contains 60% DDM. This shift from graminoids to shrubs not only results in lower-quality forage, but could also have important consequences for future domestic herd composition. Although warming extended the growing season in non-clipped plots, the reduced rangeland quality due to decreased vegetative production and nutritive quality will likely overwhelm the improved rangeland quality associated with an extended growing season. Grazing maintained or improved rangeland quality by increasing total ANPP by 20-40 g x m(-2) x yr(-1) with no effect on palatable ANPP. Grazing effects on forage nutritive quality, as measured by foliar nitrogen and carbon content and by shifts in plant group ANPP, resulted in improved forage quality. Grazing extended the growing season at both habitats, and it advanced the growing season at the meadows. Synergistic interactions between warming and grazing were present, such that grazing mediated the warming-induced declines in vegetation production and nutritive quality. Moreover, combined treatment effects were nonadditive, suggesting that we cannot predict the combined effect of global changes and human activities from single-factor studies. Our findings suggest that the rangelands on the Tibetan Plateau, and the pastoralists who depend on them, may be vulnerable to future climate changes. Grazing can mitigate the negative warming effects on rangeland quality. For example, grazing management may be an important tool to keep warming-induced shrub expansion in check. Moreover, flexible and opportunistic grazing management will be required in a warmer future.     

中国华南地区持续干期日数时空变化特征

利用华南地区46个地面气象站1960-2012年逐日降水数据,分析该地区各季节持续干期日数的时空分布特征。结果表明：1）近53年来,华南地区春季和夏季的持续干期日数呈波动下降趋势,下降速率分别为0.042和0.108 d·（10 a）-1;秋季和冬季的持续干期日数呈波动上升趋势,上升速率分别为1.911和0.118 d·（10 a）-1。广东省春季和夏季持续干期日数呈下降趋势,下降速率分别为0.171和0.243 d·（10 a）-1;秋季和冬季持续干期日数呈增加趋势,增加速率分别为1.737和0.32 d·（10 a）-1。广西省春、夏和秋季持续干期日数呈增加趋势,增加速率分别为0.109、0.046和2.117 d·（10 a）-1;冬季为减小趋势,减少速率为0.106 d·（10 a）-1。2）华南地区持续干期日数在春季呈从北向南逐渐增多的趋势,夏季呈自西南向东北逐渐增加的趋势,秋季呈自西向东逐渐增加的趋势,冬季呈从北向南逐渐增多的趋势。冬季的持续干期日数是4个季节中最长的,大致在20~44 d。3）华南地区春季持续干期日数变化倾向率在-1.20~1.00 d·（10 a）-1之间,增加趋势最明显的区域是广西省的南部地区,减少趋势最明显的区域是广东省的沿海地区;夏季在-1.00~0.60 d·（10 a）-1之间,呈增加趋势的区域主要位于广西省的中部和南部,呈减少趋势的区域位于广东省大部分地区和广西省的东部;秋季在0~3.50 d·（10 a）-1之间,整体呈现增加趋势,变化倾向率较大的区域主要位于广西省的中部和广东省的东北部沿海地区;冬季在-1.50~2.00 d·（10 a）-1之间,呈增加趋势的区域主要集中在广东省的中南部和东部地区,以及广西的东部边缘,呈减少趋势的区域主要集中在广东省的北部以及广西的中部和西北部地区。持续干期日数增加趋势最明显的季节是秋季。4）持续干期日数与降水量表现出负相关性,与气温和无降水日数表现为正相关性。降水量和无降水日数的变化对持续干期日数的变化起着重要的作用,而温度对持续干期日数的影响比较小。     

Impacts of changes in rangeland management laws and policies on grazing flexibility and pastoral livelihoods in Inner Mongolia,China

Inner Mongolia is an autonomous region of China and has a long history of pastoralism. It is a predominately arid and semi-arid region with annual precipitation of 20–500 mm from the west to east. Prior to intervention of modern rangeland management laws and policies, the pastoralists in Inner Mongolia responded to variability in ecological condition and patchiness of rangeland resources via flexible rangeland management. However, since the 1950s, some rangeland management laws and policies have affected the flexibility of rangeland management in Inner Mongolia. This study investigated the impacts of changes of rangeland management laws and policies on grazing flexibility in Inner Mongolia, and discussed whether it is desirable to allow flexibility of grazing management in Inner Mongolia, and what are the possible directions to encourage the flexibility. First, the study investigated the historical and current policies of rangeland management in Inner Mongolia from the perspective of property rights. Second, the study identified and analysed how some of the previous collectivisation and privatisation policies of the rangeland resources and livestock have affected grazing flexibility in this region. Third, this study discussed whether a higher level of flexibility of grazing management is desirable in Inner Mongolia and gave recommendations on the possible directions to encourage the flexibility of grazing management. The study drew on theories of rangeland management in Inner Mongolia, Mongolia and parts of Africa and has increased the understanding of grazing flexibility in Inner Mongolia. It is a step towards more sustainable rangeland management and development in Inner Mongolia.     

Indigenous ecological knowledge of Borana pastoralists in southern Ethiopia and current challenges

Indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK) of Borana pastoralists on strategies of sustainable resource utilization, forage species, ecological interactions, rangeland condition and trend was documented using discussions, a semi-structured questionnaire survey and analytical workshops. Traditional strategies of rangeland and water management were described and the most important forage species identified. Pastoralists' perceptions were compared across age, gender and site. There was a positive correlation between pastoralists' preference ranking of forage species and crude protein content of the species. IEK of men and women was complementary. The process of rangeland degradation was described as shortage of grass and decrease in density and frequency of highly palatable grass species, leading to low milk production and reduced conception rates in cows. The results confirmed that the IEK of these pastoralists could still provide the basis for sustainable resource utilization and rangeland rehabilitation. However, the young generation in the area had not only limited knowledge but also showed less interest to learn and apply the traditional resource management strategies. Therefore, there is high need to perpetuate, document and use this IEK for sustainable development. On the other hand, shortage of forage resources as a result of rangeland shrinkage (leading to rangeland degradation and woody plants encroachment), less application of IEK, the gap between traditional and formal systems, and trends of disobeying traditional rules and regulations were identified as current challenges for the Borana pastoralists.     

Impact of cattle grazing on the occupancy of a cryptic, threatened rail

Impacts of livestock grazing in arid and semiarid environments are often concentrated in and around wetlands where animals congregate for water, cooler temperatures, and green forage. We assessed the impacts of winter-spring (November-May) cattle grazing on marsh vegetation cover and occupancy of a highly secretive marsh bird that relies on dense vegetation cover, the California Black Rail (Laterallus jamaicensis coturniculus), in the northern Sierra Nevada foothills of California, U.S.A. Using detection-nondetection data collected during repeated call playback surveys at grazed vs. ungrazed marshes and a "random changes in occupancy" parameterization of a multi-season occupancy model, we examined relationships between occupancy and habitat covariates, while accounting for imperfect detection. Marsh vegetation cover was significantly lower at grazed marshes than at ungrazed marshes during the grazing season in 2007 but not in 2008. Winter-spring grazing had little effect on Black Rail occupancy at irrigated marshes. However, at nonirrigated marshes fed by natural springs and streams, grazed sites had lower occupancy than ungrazed sites. Black Rail occupancy was positively associated with marsh area, irrigation as a water source, and summer vegetation cover, and negatively associated with marsh isolation. Residual dry matter (RDM), a commonly used metric of grazing intensity, was significantly associated with summer marsh vegetation cover at grazed sites but not spring cover. Direct monitoring of marsh vegetation cover, particularly at natural spring- or stream-fed marshes, is recommended to prevent negative impacts to rails from overgrazing.     

Spatial variation in caddisfly grazing regimes within a northern California watershed

Ecologists seek better understanding of why species interactions change across space and time in natural communities. In streams, species effects on resources and community structure may change as physical characteristics of the stream environment change along drainage networks. We examined spatial and seasonal effects of armored grazers using a small-scale exclusion experiment that was replicated in streams of different drainage areas. Effects of grazing varied with stream size and were related to variation in grazer abundance and phenology. We identified three distinct grazing regimes and a stream size (drainage area [DA]) threshold corresponding to a shift from one to two functional trophic levels. In streams with DA < 1 km2, armored grazers did not reduce biomass of algal biofilms. In slightly larger streams (2-3 km2 DA), the armored grazer guild was dominated by bivoltine Glossosoma. These caddisflies persisted and limited algal biofilms throughout the summer in one of these streams. In the largest tributaries (DA > 10 km2), the grazer guild was dominated by univoltine caddisflies, and grazing limited algal biofilms in early summer, but not late summer, after caddisflies pupated. Drainage area is a useful predictor of spatial transitions in food web interactions within and among watersheds. Quantifying the drainage area threshold at which interactions change in catchments with differing geology, vegetation, hydrology, climate, land use, or species pools should help build the understanding we need to forecast ecological responses to environmental change.     

苏南丘陵地区森林土壤酶活性季节变化

研究了苏南丘陵区不同林分土壤养分、酶活性的剖面分布以及酶活性的季节动态变化特征。研究结果表明,研究区土壤偏酸性,土壤中TN质量分数较高,有机质、TK、AK质量分数中等,TP、AP质量分数较低,土壤TN、有机质、AK、AP的质量分数及蔗糖酶、脲酶、H2O2酶、磷酸酶活性随着土壤深度的增加而逐渐降低。土壤酶活性在不同季节也存在差异,蔗糖酶活性的季节变化表现为：秋季〉夏季〉春季〉冬季,脲酶活性为：夏季〉春季〉秋季〉冬季,毛竹林土壤的磷酸酶活性为：秋季〉春季〉夏季〉冬季,其它3种林分土壤的磷酸酶活性为：秋季〉夏季〉春季〉冬季,H2O2酶活性在马尾松、麻栎、毛竹林土壤内表现为：春季〉秋季〉夏季〉冬季,在杉木内林土壤内表现为：春季〉夏季〉秋季〉冬季。在α=0.01或α=0.05水平下,土壤酶活性与土壤TN、AP、AK、有机质及重元素Pb、Cu、Zn、Cr、Ni呈显著或极显著相关,与土壤容重呈显著或极显著负相关,冬季蔗糖酶与其它3个季节的蔗糖酶呈现极显著或显著正相关;秋季磷酸酶与其它3个季节的磷酸酶呈现极显著或显著正相关;夏季脲酶与其它3个季节的脲酶呈现极显著正相关;夏季H2O2酶与其它3个季节的H2O2酶呈现极显著正相关。     

放牧管理对藏北高寒沼泽草甸群落结构的影响

采用样带法研究了冬季放牧、冬春季放牧和全年放牧3种放牧管理模式对西藏高寒沼泽草甸高度、盖度、地上生物量及群落结构的影响.研究表明,3种放牧管理模式下的高寒沼泽草甸植被群落物种数差异不显著（p〉0.05）,高度、盖度和地上生物量差异显著（p〈0.05）。冬季放牧、冬春季放牧和全年放牧沼泽草甸地上生物量依次降低。放牧管理对沼泽草甸群落多样性影响较大,不同放牧管理模式下的沼泽草甸Shannon-Wiener指数差异显著（p〈0.05）,冬春放牧沼泽草甸Shannon-Wiener指数较冬季放牧和全年放牧沼泽草甸低。冬季放牧和全年放牧沼泽草甸Margalef指数和Pielou指数差异不显著,显著（p〈0.05）高于冬春季放牧沼泽草甸。     

近年来长江流域气溶胶光学厚度时空变化特征分析

利用2000年3月至2011年2月MODIS Level3遥感反演大气气溶胶光学厚度（AOD）产品数据,结合中国地形的3大阶梯分布,分析近年来长江流域气溶胶光学厚度的时空变化特征。结果表明,近12年来,长江流域的年平均AOD值在0．38,～,0．44之间变化,其中“第一阶梯”年平均AOD呈极显著下降趋势（P〈0．01）,“第二阶梯”和“第三阶梯”则呈上升趋势,但趋势不显著（P〉0．05）;4季平均AOD除春季呈下降趋势,其他3季均为上升趋势,其中冬季上升速率最快,线性倾向率为0．004·a-1（P〈0．05）,春季AOD与其他季节的差距在逐步减小;长江流域3大阶梯AOD具有鲜明的季节变化特征,基本上是春夏季较大,秋冬季较小,具体表现为春季最大,从夏季到冬季逐渐减小,冬季到来年春季跳跃性增高,但由于地理位置、地形、气候、人类活动等因素的影响,不同区域又有所差异;AOD年平均值和四季平均值均表现为“第三阶梯”〉“第二阶梯”〉“第一阶梯”。长江流域年平均AOD变化空间差异显著,其中显著减少区域占整个流域面积的17．54％,主要分布在“第一阶梯”;显著增加的区域仅占流域总面积的5．23％,主要分布在“第二阶梯”和“第三阶梯”。另外,由于海拔、地形及山脉阻挡等诸多因素影响,导致在地形阶梯间高程突变线左右两边的狭窄区域,AOD分布存在低处明显大于高处的现象。这些结果有助于长江流域的区域气候变化和环境研究。     

Seasonal changes in abundance and development of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Calanus pacificus</Emphasis> (Crustacea: Copepoda) in the Oyashio–Kuroshio Mixed Region

Seasonal changes in abundance and development of Calanus pacificus Brodsky were investigated by analyzing samples of different depth strata (0–150 m and 0–1000 m) collected monthly in the Oyashio–Kuroshio Mixed Region. Copepodite stage 5 (C5) emerged from dormancy and matured in early summer. A new generation appeared in July and developed into C5 during summer to autumn. Some of the summer generation arrested development at C5 and persisted below 150 m depth until the following early summer. Although the remainder matured and reproduced in October, a new generation was not observed at the surface during winter. These results suggest that C. pacificus shows two different life-cycle patterns, i.e. one generation annually, with overwintering C5 in deep waters, and two generations annually, with surface development during autumn to winter. The complex life-cycle patterns may be an adaptation to the highly fluctuating surface environment in the Oyashio–Kuroshio Mixed Region.Communicated by T. Ikeda, Hakodate     

Interactions between wave action and grazing control the distribution of intertidal macroalgae

Canopy-forming macroalgae are key species on temperate rocky shores. However, there is a lack of understanding of how the relative balance of physical and biological factors controls the establishment and persistence of intertidal macroalgae. Here we present an integrated study of the relative importance of wave-induced forces and grazing for the recruitment and survival of the canopy-forming intertidal macroalgae Fucus vesiculosus and F. spiralis. A set of overtopped breakwaters provided a nearly unconfounded gradient in wave exposure between seaward and landward sides. A biomechanical analysis was performed based on empirical measurements of maximum drag forces in breaking waves, a model of long-term maximum wave height, and the breaking stress of Fucus spp. The estimated maximum flow speed (7-8 m/s) on the seaward side of the breakwaters was predicted to completely dislodge or prune Fucus spp. larger than approximately 10 cm, while dislodgment was highly unlikely on the landward side for all sizes. Experimental transplantation of Fucus spp. supported the biomechanical analysis but also suggested that mechanical abrasion may further limit survival in wave-exposed locations. Experimental removal of the limpet Patella vulgata, which was the principal grazer at this site, resulted in recruitment of Fucus spp. on the seaward side. We present a model of limpet grazing that indicates that limpet densities >5-20 individuals/m2 provide a proximate mechanism preventing establishment of Fucus spp., whereas wave action >2 m/s reduces persistence through dislodgment and battering. In a conceptual model we further propose that recruitment and survival of juvenile Fucus spp. are controlled indirectly by wave exposure through higher limpet densities at exposed locations. This model predicts that climate change, and in particular an increased frequency of storm events in the northeast Atlantic, will restrict fucoids to more sheltered locations.     

Pastoralists' responses to variation of rangeland resources in time and space.

We explore the response of pastoralists to rangeland resource variation in time and space, focusing on regions where high variation makes it unlikely that an economically viable herd can be maintained on a single management unit. In such regions, the need to move stock to find forage in at least some years has led to the evolution of nomadism and transhumance, and reciprocal grazing agreements among the holders of common-property rangeland. The role of such informal institutions in buffering resource variation is well documented in some Asian and African rangelands, but in societies with formally established private-property regimes, where we focus, such institutions have received little attention. We examine agistment networks, which play an important role in buffering resource variation in modern-day Australia. Agistment is a commercial arrangement between pastoralists who have less forage than they believe they require and pastoralists who believe they have more. Agistment facilitates the movement of livestock via a network based largely on trust. We are concerned exclusively with the link between the characteristics of biophysical variation and human aspects of agistment networks, and we developed a model to test the hypothesis that such a link could exist. Our model builds on game theory literature, which explains cooperation between strangers based on the ability of players to learn whom they can trust. Our game is played on a highly stylized landscape that allows us to control and isolate the degree of spatial variation and spatial covariation. We found that agistment networks are more effective where spatial variation in resource availability is high, and generally more effective when spatial covariation is low. Policy design that seeks to work with existing social networks in rangelands has potential, but this potential varies depending on localized characteristics of the biophysical variability.     

Experimental evidence of a risk-sensitive reproductive allocation in a long-lived mammal

When reproduction competes with the amount of resources available for survival during an unpredictable nonbreeding season, individuals should adopt a risk-sensitive regulation of their reproductive allocation. We tested this hypothesis on female reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), which face a trade-off between reproduction and acquisition of body reserves during spring and summer, with autumn body mass functioning as insurance against stochastic winter climatic severity. The study was conducted in a population consisting of two herds: one that received supplementary winter feeding for four years while the other utilized natural pastures. The females receiving additional forage allocated more to their calves. Experimental translocation of females between the herds was conducted to simulate two contrasting rapid alterations of winter conditions. When females receiving supplementary feeding were moved to natural pastures, they promptly reduced their reproductive allocation the following summer. However, when winter conditions were improved, females were reluctant to increase their reproductive allocation. This asymmetric response to improved vs. reduced winter conditions is consistent with a risk-averse adjustment in reproductive allocation. The ability of individuals to track their environment and the concordant risk-sensitive adjustment of reproductive allocation may render subarctic reindeer more resilient to climate change than previously supposed.     

Selective consumption and facilitation by mesograzers in adult and colonizing macroalgal assemblages

Grazing pressure on macroalgae in littoral communities may vary with algal species, the age of an algal individual and grazer identity. Previous studies on alga–grazer interactions have shown that grazer preference for an algal species may release another one from interspecific competition. We measured the impacts of four common grazer taxa and the natural grazer guild on macroalgal communities at both their colonization and adult stages, and compared the impacts to grazer exclosures. The grazer effects were stronger on colonizing than on adult macroalgae; grazers did not reduce the total density of adult algae. Grazers both feed on propagules and indirectly facilitate other algae, depending on the grazer or algal species. Hydrobia species increased the settlement of spores of the red alga Ceramium tenuicorne. Similarly, the gastropod Theodoxus fluviatilis tended to facilitate one crustose algal species, but decreased the propagule density of annual filamentous algae, suggesting a preference for one species to the advantage of another. Effects of crustacean mesograzers on the studied macroalgae were weak. These results indicate that northern Baltic macroalgae are limited to grazing mainly during their colonization stage.     

天津市区景观生态及物种多样性

天津市区的景观生态系统,由于受地域、气候等因素的限制,品种比较单一,春、夏、秋三季缺乏彩色,冬季缺乏绿色。为了改变这种现状,可以结合春季干旱、夏季炎热、冬季寒冷、降水量少且不均匀的气候特点,根据乔灌草混合立体栽种的绿化美化原则,因地制宜地引进一些适合本地环境和气候条件的具有"彩色"、"长绿"和"香味"特点的美化绿化树种,和本地的传统树种搭配种植,达到优化城市生态系统、丰富植物种群和提高观赏效果的目的。根据各种植物对光的补偿点不同的原理,最大限度地创造绿量,让城市生态环境向良性循环的方向发展。     

流沙湾海水中石油烃的时空分布特征研究

于2008年2月（冬季）、5月（春季）、8月（夏季）和11月（秋季）对流沙湾进行了4次采样考察,研究分析了流沙湾表层海水中石油烃质量浓度的平面分布和季节变化特征。结果表明,在2008年度,流沙湾表层海水石油烃的质量浓度为0~1.930 mg.L-1,平均值为0.080 mg.L-1,季节差异比较明显,呈春、冬、夏、秋季依次减小的变化趋势,冬、春季节海水呈现不同程度石油污染,夏、秋季节属Ⅰ、Ⅱ级水质,整个流沙湾海域表层海水石油烃的平面分布相对比较均匀。在内外湾分布上,冬、春、秋季节外湾大于内湾,而夏季节内湾大于外湾。流沙湾的水产养殖活动是其海水石油烃时空分布的主要影响因素。     

Monitoring the production of Central California coastal rangelands using satellite remote sensing

There is a long history of livestock grazing on the California Central Coast, dating back over 150 years. In this study, methods were reviewed and results presented for analysis of NASA’s Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite sensor data to monitor year-to-year variation of forage production on Central Coast rangelands around Big Sur, California. Time series plots from 2000 to 2012 of vegetation greenness for ten rangeland sites showed similar inter-annual patterns in satellite yield index (SYI) values. Most sites reached their maximum greenness levels each year in early May. The year with the highest observed SYI level across most sites was 2005. In the northern portion of the region (north of Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park), 2007 was the year with the lowest observed SYI level, whereas in the southern allotments, 2007 was a year with a relatively high SYI level. These methods have the potential to monitor the differing seasonal growing cycles of rangeland production across the area of individual grazing allotments on the Central Coast. Such a cost-effective and timely approach is required for conservation monitoring in the Big Sur coastal ecosystems where rapid climate change may shift vegetation cover in favor of more extensive rangelands at the expense of forested lands.     

深圳湾浮游植物的季节变化

2008年2月至11月对深圳湾的浮游植物和理化环境因子进行了4个季度月的调查,结果共检出浮游植物150种（包括变种和变型）：春季66种、夏季72种、秋季54种、冬季50种,其中硅藻门36属108种,甲藻门14属36种,绿藻门3属3种,蓝藻门2属3种。优势种共有湖沼圆筛藻Coscinodiscus lacustris、中肋骨条藻Skeletonema costatum、夜光藻Noctiluca scientillans 3种：春季1种、夏季1种、秋季1种、冬季2种,优势种群由春夏季的湖沼圆筛藻演替至秋季的中肋骨条藻、冬季的中肋骨条藻和夜光藻,没有全年广布优势种;4季均出现的种类共有9种,其中硅藻8种,甲藻1种,各季节间共有种类数在13～31种,Jaccard种类相似性指数范围在0.12~0.35,季节更替明显。多样性指数和均匀度的变化范围分别为0.006~1.724和0.001~0.306,群落结构较脆弱。细胞密度在1.25×107~217.90×107 cells.m-3,夏季最高,春季次之,冬季最低,属季节单峰型变化,与一般亚热带春、秋季出现密度高峰不一致,这与深圳湾陆源营养物质的扰动有关,其无机氮和活性磷酸盐含量均劣于国家海水水质标准的四类水,因此,该海域水质营养类型属于亚热带富营养型。细胞密度与硅酸盐呈极显著的负相关,相关系数为-0.446（p〈0.01,n=36,双尾）,与水温呈显著的正相关,相关系数为0.371（p〈0.05,n=36,双尾）,与其他因子的相关性不明显。从优势种的种类数和多样性指数分析,深圳湾浮游植物的群落结构已趋于单一化,生态系统抗干扰能力极为脆弱。     

An assessment of variation in molluscan grazing pressure on Hong Kong rocky shores

Several methods of assessment have been used to document variation in grazing pressure on temperate rocky shores, although often these methods are applied without consideration of local conditions or species. In this study, a comparison was made between abundance counts of inactive molluscan grazers at low tide, direct observations of grazer activity and distribution throughout day and night tidal cycles, and records of grazing marks on wax discs, for the mid-shore of Hong Kong. The abundance of grazers found during low-tide counts varied among dates, sites and species. This method, however, did not record all grazer species that day/night observations showed to migrate from the low shore with the rising tide. Low-tide counts, therefore, underestimate grazing pressure (number of active grazers per unit area) and grazer guild (number of species). Grazing marks on wax discs also recorded a greater number of species than the low-tide counts of inactive grazers, and included grazers that were seen to migrate up shore during day/night observations. Certain limpet species, however, avoided the wax and did not leave grazing marks, showing this method to also underestimate grazing pressure. All methods showed grazing pressure to be variable at spatial scales of tens of metres or less and also temporally variable between sampling dates. The sole use of either low-tide counts or wax discs is likely to underestimate grazing pressure, due to variation in shore topography and grazer foraging behaviour, especially on shores with a narrow tidal range such as in Hong Kong. To gain a more accurate assessment of total grazing pressure, it is suggested that recording of grazing marks on wax discs should be used in conjunction with direct day/night observations.     

The impact of exploiting grazers (Scaridae) on the dynamics of Caribbean coral reefs.

Coral reefs provide a number of ecosystem services including coastal defense from storms, the generation of building materials, and fisheries. It is increasingly clear that the management of reef resources requires an ecosystem approach in which extractive activities are weighed against the needs of the ecosystem and its functions rather than solely those of the fishery. Here, I use a spatially explicit simulation model of a Caribbean coral reef to examine the ecosystem requirements for grazing which is primarily conducted by parrotfishes (Scaridae). The model allows the impact of fishing grazers to be assessed in the wider context of other ecosystem processes including coral-algal competition, hurricanes, and mass extinction of the herbivorous urchin Diadema antillarum. Using a new analytical model of scarid grazing, it is estimated that parrotfishes can only maintain between 10% and 30% of a structurally complex forereef in a grazed state. Predictions from this grazing model were then incorporated into a broader simulation model of the ecosystem. Simulations predict that scarid grazing is unable to maintain high levels of coral cover (> or = 30%) when severe hurricanes occur on a decadal basis, such as occurs in parts of the northern Caribbean. However, reefs can withstand such intense disturbance when grazing is undertaken by both scarids and the urchin Diadema. Scarid grazing is predicted to allow recovery from hurricanes when their incidence falls to 20 years or less (e.g., most of Central and South America). Sensitivity analyses revealed that scarid grazing had the most acute impact on model behavior, and depletion led to the emergence of a stable, algal-dominated community state. Under conditions of heavy grazer depletion, coral cover was predicted to decline rapidly from an initial level of 30% to less than 1% within 40 years, even when hurricane frequency was low at 60 years. Depleted grazers caused a population bottleneck in juvenile corals in which algal overgrowth caused elevated levels of postsettlement mortality and resulted in a bimodal distribution of coral sizes. Several new hypotheses were generated including a region-wide change in the spatial heterogeneity of coral reefs following extinction of Diadema. The management of parrotfishes on Caribbean reefs is usually approached implicitly through no-take marine reserves. The model predicts that depletion of grazers in nonreserve areas can severely limit coral accretion. Other studies have shown that low coral accretion can reduce the structural complexity and therefore quality of the reef habitat for many organisms. A speculative yet rational inference from the model is that failure to manage scarid populations outside reserves will have a profoundly negative impact on the functioning of the reserve system and status of non-reserve reefs.