Driver licensing,motor-vehicle crashes,and moving violations among older adults

IntroductionDriving is important for well-being among older adults, but age-related conditions are associated with driving reduction or cessation and increased crash risk for older drivers. Our objectives were to describe population-based rates of older drivers’ licensing and per-driver rates of crashes and moving violations.Methods: We examined individual-level statewide driver licensing, crash, and traffic citation data among all New Jersey drivers aged ≥ 65 and a 35- to 54-year-old comparison group during 2010–2014. Rate ratios (RR) of crashes and moving violations were estimated using Poisson regression.Results: Overall, 86% of males and 71% of females aged ≥ 65 held a valid driver’s license. Older drivers had 27% lower per-driver crash rates than middle-aged drivers (RR: 0.73, 95% CI: 0.73, 0.74)—with appreciable differences by sex—but 40% higher fatal crash rates (RR: 1.40 [1.24, 1.58]). Moving violation rates among older drivers were 72% lower than middle-aged drivers (RR: 0.28 [0.28, 0.28]).Conclusion: The majority of older adults are licensed, with substantial variation by age and sex. Older drivers have higher rates of fatal crashes but lower rates of moving violations compared with middle-aged drivers.Practical applications: Future research is needed to understand the extent to which older adults drive and to identify opportunities to further reduce risk of crashes and resultant injuries among older adults.     

Crash rates over time among younger and older drivers in the SHRP 2 naturalistic driving study

Objective: To examine crash rates over time among 16–17-year-old drivers compared to older drivers. Methods: Data were from a random sample of 854 of the 3,500 study participants in SHRP 2, a U.S. national, naturalistic driving (instrumented vehicle) study. Crashes/10,000 miles by driver age group, 3-month period, and sex were examined within generalized linear mixed models. Results: Analyses of individual differences between age cohorts indicated higher incidence rates in the 16–17-year old cohort relative to older age groups each of the first four quarters (except the first quarter compared to 18–20 year old drivers) with incident rate ratios (IRR) ranging from 1.98 to 18.90, and for the full study period compared with drivers 18–20 (IRR = 1.69, CI = 1.00, 2.86), 21 to 25 (IRR = 2.27, CI = 1.31, 3.91), and 35 to 55 (IRR = 4.00, CI = 2.28, 7.03). Within the 16–17-year old cohort no differences were found in rates among males and females and the decline in rates over the 24-month study period was not significant. Conclusions: The prolonged period of elevated crash rates suggests the need to enhance novice young driver prevention approaches such as Graduated Driver’s Licensing limits, parent restrictions, and post-licensure supervision and monitoring. Practical Applications: Increases are needed in Graduated Driver’s Licensing limits, parent restrictions, and postlicensure supervision and monitoring.     

Using SHRP2 naturalistic driving data to examine driver speeding behavior

Problem: Speeding-related crashes continue to be a serious problem in the United States. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 26% of all fatal crashes in 2017 had speeding as a contributing factor. Method: Vehicle speed data recorded during the Strategic Highway Research Program 2 (SHRP 2) Naturalistic Driving Study were analyzed to identify the frequency of speeding episodes. Up to 100 trips were sampled from 2,910 individual drivers aged 16–64. Vehicle speed data from individual trips were parsed into continuous speeding episodes (SEs) and Free-Flow Episodes (FFEs), which approximated opportunities to speed. Results & Discussion: Driving 10 mph above the posted speed limit (PSL) was common, and 99.8% of drivers had at least one occurrence SE within their trip sample, yielding an average of 2.75 SEs per trip (623,202 SEs in total). The analysis focused on a subset of higher-speed SEs in which the vehicle reached speeds of at least 15 mph above the PSL during the SE (71,113 SEs in total). Average maximum speeds for most higher-speed SEs ranged between 12 mph to 15 mph above the PSL, and most also lasted less than 2 min. Most drivers spent less than 5% of the FFE time speeding, and only a small number of drivers spent more than 10% of the time speeding. There was also a clear trend towards the younger group having higher overall percentages of SE time relative to FFE time. Practical Applications: The methods and measures developed in this study provide the foundation for future analyses to determine if there are different types of speeding that vary in terms of risky characteristics, and further, if certain drivers are more likely to engage in riskier speeding behavior. Identifying higher-risk speeders is an important step for developing countermeasures and strategies targeting drivers that are at greatest risk of speed-related crashes.     

Using a driving simulator to identify older drivers at inflated risk of motor vehicle crashes

PROBLEM: To develop appropriate assessment criteria to measure the performance of older drivers using an interactive PC-based driving simulator, and to determine which measures were associated with the occurrence of motor-vehicle crash. METHOD: One hundred and twenty-nine older drivers residing in a metropolitan city volunteered to participate in this retrospective cohort study. Using the driving simulator, appropriate driving tasks were devised to test the older drivers, whose performances were assessed by 10 reliable assessment criteria. Logistic regression analysis was then undertaken to determine those criteria that influence the self-reported crash outcome. RESULTS: As expected, driving skill of older drivers was found to decline with age. Over 60% of the sample participants reported having at least one motor-vehicle crash during the past year. Adjusting for age in a logistic regression analysis, the cognitive abilities associated with the crash occurrence were working memory, decision making under pressure of time, and confidence in driving at high speed. SUMMARY: The findings of this retrospective study indicated those individuals at inflated risk of vehicle crashes could be identified using the PC-based interactive driving simulator. Prospective studies need to be undertaken to determine whether the driving simulator can predict future crash events. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: This study demonstrated an economical driving simulator approach to screen out problematic or unsafe older drivers before a more detailed but expensive road test is considered.     

Near crash characteristics among risky drivers using the SHRP2 naturalistic driving study

Problem: Previous research have focused extensively on crashes, however near crashes provide additional data on driver errors leading to critical events as well as evasive maneuvers employed to avoid crashes. The Strategic Highway Research Program 2 (SHRP2) Naturalistic Driving Study contains extensive data on real world driving and offers a reliable methodology to study near crashes. The current study utilized the SHRP2 database to compare the rate and characteristics associated with near crashes among risky drivers. Methods: A subset from the SHRP2 database consisting of 4,818 near crashes for teen (16–19 yrs), young adult (20–24 yrs), adult (35–54 yrs), and older (70+ yrs) drivers was used. Near crashes were classified into seven incident types: rear-end, road departure, intersection, head-on, side-swipe, pedestrian/cyclist, and animal. Near crash rates, incident type, secondary tasks, and evasive maneuvers were compared across age groups. For rear-end near crashes, near crash severity, max deceleration, and time-to-collision at braking were compared across age. Results: Near crash rates significantly decreased with increasing age (p < 0.05). Young drivers exhibited greater rear-end (p < 0.05) and road departure (p < 0.05) near crashes compared to adult and older drivers. Intersection near crashes were the most common incident type among older drivers. Evasive maneuver type did not significantly vary across age groups. Near crashes exhibited a longer time-to-collision at braking (p < 0.01) compared to crashes. Summary: These data demonstrate increased total near crash rates among young drivers relative to adult and older drivers. Prevalence of specific near crash types also differed across age groups. Timely execution of evasive maneuvers was a distinguishing factor between crashes or near crashes. Practical Applications: These data can be used to develop more targeted driver training programs and help OEMs optimize ADAS to address the most common errors exhibited by risky drivers.     

Driving concerns among older adults: Associations with driving skill,behaviors, and experiences

Objectives: The purpose of this investigation was to determine what older adults find most concerning about driving as they age and how these concerns are related to driving skill, behaviors, and experiences.

Methods: In partnership with the Maryland Motor Vehicle Administration, a sample of 751 older adults ages 65 and older completed an online survey between October 2017 and May 2018. A content analysis was used to code open-ended responses about driver concerns, and multivariate logistic regression models were used to analyze the associations between driving concerns and driving skill, behavior, and experiences.

Results: Eighty-four percent of participants reported at least one driving concern, with 44% concerned about others’ driving, 34% concerned about their own driving, and 24% concerned about driving conditions. The most frequently mentioned driving concerns were other drivers in general, driving at night, visual ability and awareness, and other drivers being aggressive or reckless. Being concerned with their own driving was significantly associated with decreased perceived driving skill and increased odds of experiencing negative driving experiences in the past year. Being concerned about others’ driving was associated with increased odds of wearing a seat belt (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]?=?2.67; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02, 7.00), having high perceived driving skills in emergency situations (AOR = 1.56; 95% CI, 1.14, 2.12), and getting in a near crash or collision in the past year (AOR = 1.50; 95% CI, 1.04, 2.18).

Conclusions: Older adult drivers are frequently concerned about their own driving as well as the driving of others. Implications for future research and health practice are discussed.     

Being watched over by a conversation robot may enhance safety in simulated driving

IntroductionIn an aging society that is more and more information-oriented, being able to replace human passengers’ protective effects on vehicle drivers with those of social robots is both essential and promising. However, the effects of a social robot’s presence on drivers have not yet been fully explored. Thus, using a driving simulator and a conversation robot, this experimental study had two main goals: (a) to find out whether social robots’ anthropomorphic qualities (i.e., not the practical information the robot provides drivers) have protective effects by promoting attentive driving and alleviating crash risks; and (b) by what psychological processes such effects emerge. Method: Participants were recruited from young (n = 38), the middle-aged (n = 39), and the elderly (n = 49) age groups. They were assigned to either the treatment group (simulated driving in a conversation robot’s presence) or the control group (simulated driving alone), and their driving performance was measured. Mental states (peaceful, concentrating, and reflective) also were assessed in a post-driving questionnaire using our original scales. Results: Although the group of older participants did not experience protective effects (perhaps due to motion sickness), the young participants drove attentively, with the robot enhancing peace of mind. The protective effect was also observed among the middle-aged participants, and the verbal data analysis ascribed this to the robot’s role of expressing sympathy, especially when the middle-aged drivers nearly had not-at-fault crashes, which caused them to be stressed. In conclusion, we discuss the practical implications of the results.     

Characteristics of crashes and injuries among 14 and 15 year old drivers,by rurality

Purpose: Motor-vehicle crashes continue to be the leading cause of death for teenagers in the United States. The United States has some of the youngest legal driving ages worldwide. The objective of this study was to determine rates and factors associated with injury crashes among 14- and 15-year-old drivers and how these varied by rurality. Methods: Data for this cross-sectional study of 14- and 15-year-old drivers were obtained from the Iowa Department of Transportation from 2001 to 2013. Crash and injury crash rates were calculated by rurality. The relationship between crash and driver factors and injury was assessed using logistic regression. Findings: Teen drivers, aged 14 and 15 years, had a statewide crash rate of 8 per 1,000 drivers from 2001 to 2013. The majority of crashes occurred in urban areas (51%), followed by in town (29%), remote rural areas (13%), and suburban areas (7%). Crash and injury crash rates increased as level of rurality increased. The odds of an injury crash increased more than 10-fold with the presence of multiple other teens as passengers, compared to no passengers (OR = 10.7, 95% CI: 7.1–16.2). Conclusions: Although 14- and 15-year-old drivers in Iowa have either limited unsupervised (school permits) or supervised only driving restrictions, they are overrepresented in terms of crashes and injury crashes. Rural roads and multiple teen passengers are particularly problematic in terms of injury outcomes. Practical applications: Results from this study support passenger restrictions and teen driving interventions designed with a rural focus.     

Aggressive driving behaviour in young drivers (aged 16 through 25) involved in fatal crashes

IntroductionWe wished to determine the extent to which number of passengers, driver age, and sex were associated with aggressive driving actions (ADAs) in young drivers involved in a fatal crash.MethodsWe used U.S. fatal-crash data from Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS), 1991 –2008. Proxy measures of aggressive driving included ADA presence and speed differential (posted speed limit minus estimated travel speed). We examined the odds of an ADA and speed differential in young drivers (aged 16 to 25) by passenger status.ResultsCompared to driving alone young drivers (aged 16) had increased odds of an ADA between 14% (OR: 1.14; 95% CI: 1.07; 1.22) and 95% (OR: 1.95; 95% CI: 1.40; 2.74) when accompanied by one and five passengers, respectively. Further, carrying a higher number of passengers was a stronger predictor of speeding in younger drivers.ConclusionsThis study supports the use of graduated licensing approaches. Specifically, developing interventions to reduce aggressive driving appear imperative.Impact on IndustryWhile the results of our study support the use of graduated licensing approaches there is room for improvement. Our study indicates that tackling impaired driving is not sufficient to drastically reduce aggressive driving among the youngest drivers. Further research on young drivers is required to understand the influence of peers and the role of gender on driving behavior. Strategies to reduce aggressive driving behaviors among the youngest drivers may not only prevent crashes during their early driving careers but may also translate into a reduced crash risk over their lifetime.     

Identifying the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on driving behavior using naturalistic driving data and time series forecasting

Introduction: COVID-19 has disrupted daily life and societal flow globally since December 2019; it introduced measures such as lockdown and suspension of all non-essential movements. As a result, driving activity was also significantly affected. Still, to-date, a quantitative assessment of the effect of COVID-19 on driving behavior during the lockdown is yet to be provided. This gap forms the motivation for this paper, which aims at comparing observed values concerning three indicators (average speed, speeding, and harsh braking), with forecasts based on their corresponding observations before the lockdown in Greece. Method: Time series of the three indicators were extracted using a specially developed smartphone application and transmitted to a back-end platform between 01/01/2020 and 09/05/2020, a time period containing normal operations, COVID-19 spreading, and the full lockdown period in Greece. Based on the collected data, XGBoost was employed to identify the most influential COVID-19 indicators, and Seasonal AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (SARIMA) models were developed for obtaining forecasts on driving behavior. Results: Results revealed the intensity of the impact of COVID-19 on driving, especially on average speed, speeding, and harsh braking per 100 km. More specifically, speeds were found to increase by 2.27 km/h on average compared to the forecasted evolution, while harsh braking/100 km increased to almost 1.51 on average. On the bright side, road crashes in Greece were reduced by 49% during the months of COVID-19 compared to the non-COVID-19 period.     

The effect of extending graduated driver licensing to older novice drivers in Indiana

Introduction: Graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems have been shown to reduce rates of crashes, injuries, and deaths of young novice drivers. However, approximately one in three new drivers in the United States obtain their first driver’s license at age 18 or older, and thus are exempt from most or all provisions of GDL in most states. Method: In July 2015, the state of Indiana updated its GDL program, extending its restrictions on driving at night and on carrying passengers during the first 6 months of independent driving, previously only applicable to new drivers younger than 18, to all newly-licensed drivers younger than 21 years of age. The current study examined monthly rates of crashes per licensed driver under the affected conditions (driving at night and driving with passengers) among Indiana drivers first licensed at ages 18, 19, and 20 under the updated GDL system compared with drivers licensed at the same ages under the previous GDL system. We used Poisson regression to estimate the association between the GDL system and crash rates, while attempting to control for other factors that might have also influenced crash rates. We used linear regression to estimate the association between the GDL system and the proportion of all crashes that occurred under conditions restricted by the GDL program. Results: Results showed, contrary to expectations, that rates of crashes during restricted nighttime hours and with passengers were higher among drivers licensed under the updated GDL system. This mirrored a statewide increase in crash rates among drivers of all ages over the study period and likely reflected increased overall driving exposure. The proportions of all crashes that were at night or with passengers did not change. Practical Applications: More research is needed to understand how older novice drivers respond when GDL systems originally designed for younger novice drivers are applied to them.     

Higher cue utilization in driving supports improved driving performance and more effective visual search behaviors

IntroductionOnce qualified, drivers rarely receive objective feedback concerning their performance. This is especially the case in the context of cognitive skills such as situation assessment. The aim of this study was to test the construct validity of an online assessment of motor-vehicle driver cue utilization that forms the foundation for situation assessment. Method: Seventy-one undergraduate Psychology students with broadly comparable driving experience completed a motor-vehicle driving version of EXPERTise 2.0, an online tool that enables inferences concerning the utilization of cues based on responses to task-related stimuli. They also completed a simulated driving task while fitted with an eye tracking device, during which a range of hazards were presented with participants’ responses recorded. Results: The results indicated that higher cue utilization was associated with fewer driving errors and collisions, fewer visual fixations, and fewer saccades in comparison to participants with lower cue utilization. Conclusion: The results provide support for the construct validity of EXPERTise 2.0 as an effective measure of cue utilization in the context of driving.Practical applicationsProviding comparative feedback to drivers concerning their development of situation assessment skills may provide opportunities for further training and development, thereby reducing the likelihood of motor-vehicle accidents.     

To speed or not to speed: Thematic analysis of American driving narratives

IntroductionSpeeding is a major cause of unintentional roadway death in the United States. Existing data show that U.S. drivers tend to speed less as they age, but reasons for this change remain largely unknown. Limited research has examined why U.S. drivers decide to speed or why U.S. drivers decide not to speed, and none to date has determined why speeding behaviors change over the life course. Research into these issues can provide insight that may be harnessed for more effective anti-speeding interventions that catalyze decisions not to speed. Methods: The current study asked a national sample of U.S. drivers (N = 309) about their driving behaviors and how they have changed over time using an open-ended prompt in an online survey. The authors qualitatively coded responses using a narrative analysis lens to identify common themes. Results: Results show U.S. drivers often make deliberate choices to speed and some do not consider speeding to be dangerous after achieving perceived mastery of driving skills. Participants tended to report speeding less over time, citing increased concern for family and other roadway users, which may help explain national speeding data trends. Several other themes emerged identifying individual cognitive factors, environmental contexts, and key persons impacting speeding decisions. Practical Applications: Findings show that the most effective means of encouraging U.S. drivers to decide not to speed may be multi-pronged intervention approaches highlighting how speeding reduces roadway driver control, connecting speeding with safety, and encompassing road design and law enforcement strategies.     

Deconstructing a gender difference: driving cessation and personal driving history of older women

PROBLEM: The purpose of this study is to understand the reasons behind older women's driving cessation by comparing the driving histories of Finnish women who either gave up or renewed their drivers license at the age of 70. METHOD: A mail survey was sent to all Finnish women born in 1927 who gave up their license in 1997 (N=1,476) and to a corresponding random sample of women who renewed their license (N=1,494). The total response rate was 42.1%. RESULTS: The length and level of activity of personal driving history were strongly associated with driving cessation and continuation. Ex-drivers tended to have an inactive driving career behind them, whereas drivers had a more active personal driving history. In addition, those women with an active, "male-like" driving history who had decided to stop driving gave reasons for driving cessation that were similar to what is known about older men's reasons to give up driving. The results suggest that the decision to stop driving is related to driving habits rather than gender.     

Effects of naturalistic cell phone conversations on driving performance

PROBLEM: The prevalence of automobile drivers talking on cell phones is growing, but the effect of that behavior on driving performance is unclear. Also unclear is the relationship between the difficulty level of a phone conversation and the resulting distraction. METHOD: This study used a driving simulator to determine the effect that easy and difficult cell phone conversations have on driving performance. RESULTS: Cell phone use caused participants to have higher variation in accelerator pedal position, drive more slowly with more variation in speed, and report a higher level of workload regardless of conversation difficulty level. CONCLUSIONS: Drivers may cope with the additional stress of phone conversations by enduring higher workloads or setting reduced performance goals. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Because an increasing number of people talk on the phone while driving, crashes caused by distracted drivers using cell phones will cause disruptions in business, as well as injury, disability, and permanent loss of personnel.     

Modeling drivers’ reaction when being tailgated: A Random Forests Method

Background: Tailgating is a common aggressive driving behavior that has been identified as one of the leading causes of rear-end crashes. Previous studies have explored the behavior of tailgating drivers and have reported effective solutions to decrease the amount or prevalence of tailgating. This paper tries to fill the research gap by focusing on understanding highway tailgating scenarios and examining the leading vehicles’ reaction using existing naturalistic driving data. Method: A total of 1,255 tailgating events were identified by using the one-second time headway threshold criterion. Four types of reactions from the leading vehicles were identified, including changing lanes, slowing down, speeding up, and making no response. A Random Forests algorithm was employed in this study to predict the leading vehicle’s reaction based on corresponding factors including driver, vehicle, and environmental variables. Results: The analysis of the tailgating scenarios and associated factors showed that male drivers were more frequently involved in tailgating events than female drivers and that tailgating was more prevalent under sunny weather and in daytime conditions. Changing lanes was the most prevalent reaction from the leading vehicle during tailgating, which accounted for more than half of the total events. The results of Random Forests showed that mean time headway, duration of tailgating, and minimum time headway were three main factors, which had the greatest impact on the leading vehicle drivers’ reaction. It was found that in 95% of the events, leading vehicles would change lanes when being tailgated for two minutes or longer. Practical Applications: Results of this study can help to better understand the behavior and decision making of drivers. This understanding can be used in designing countermeasures or assistance systems to reduce tailgating behavior and related negative safety consequences.     

Predictability of clinical assessments for driving performance

PROBLEM: As the number of older drivers grows, it is increasingly important to accurately identify at-risk drivers. This study tested clinical assessments predictive of real-time driving performance. METHOD: Selected assessment tools considered important in the identification of at-risk older drivers represented the domains of vision, cognition, motor performance, and driving knowledge. Participants were administered the battery of assessments followed by an on-road test. A univariate analysis was conducted to identify significant factors (<.05) to be included in a multivariate regression model. RESULTS: Assessments identified as independently associated with driving performance in the regression model included: FACTTM Contrast sensitivity slide-B, Rapid Pace Walk, UFOV rating, and MMSE total score. DISCUSSION: The domains of vision, cognitive, and motor performance were represented in the predictive model. SUMMARY: Due to the dynamic nature of the driving task, it is not likely that a single assessment tool will identify at risk drivers. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: By standardizing the selection of clinical assessments used in driving evaluations, practitioners should be able to provide services more efficiently, more objectively, and more accurately to identify at-risk drivers.     

Factors associated with driving under the influence of alcohol

Objective: This study examined the risk factors of driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) among drivers of specific vehicle categories (DSC). On the basis of this research, the variables related to DUI and involvement in traffic crashes were defined. The analysis was conducted for car drivers, bicyclists, motorcyclists, bus drivers, and truck drivers.

Method: The research sample included drivers involved in traffic crashes on the territory of Serbia in 2016 (60,666). Two types of analyses were conducted in this study. Logistic regression established the correlation between DUI and DSC and the The Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (Multi-criteria decision making) method was applied to consider the scoring and explore the potential for the prevalence of DUI on the basis of 2 data sets (DUI and non DUI).

Results: The study results showed that driver error and male drivers were the 2 most significant risk factors for DUI, with the highest scores and potential for prevalence. The nonuse of restraint systems, driver experience, and driver age are the factors with a significant prediction of involvement in an accident and an insignificant prediction of DUI.

Conclusions: Following the development of the logistic prediction models for DUI drivers, testing of the model was conducted for 3 control driver groups: Car, motorcycle, and bicycle. The prediction model with a probability greater than 50% showed that 77% of car drivers were under the influence of alcohol. Similarly, the prediction percentage for motorcyclists and bicyclists amounted to 71 and 67%, respectively. The recommendation of the study is that drivers whose DUI probability is above 50% should be potentially suspected of DUI. The results of this study can help to understand the problem of DUI among specific driver categories and detect DUI drivers, with the aim of creating successful traffic safety policy.