A critique of the performance of EIA within the offshore oil and gas sector

The oil and gas sector is a key driver of the offshore economy. Yet, it is also associated with a number of unwanted environmental impacts which potentially threaten the long term economic and environmental viability of marine ecosystems. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) can potentially make a significant contribution to the identification and management of adverse impacts through the promotion of evidence based decision making. However, the extent to which EIA has been embraced by key stakeholders is poorly understood. On this basis, this paper provides an initial evaluation of EIA performance within the oil and gas sector. The methodology adopted for the paper consisted of the structured review of 35 Environmental Statements (ESs) along with interviews with regulators, operators, consultants and advisory bodies. The findings reveal a mixed picture of EIA performance with a significant number of ESs falling short of satisfactory quality and a tendency for the process to be driven by compliance rather than best practice.     

土壤污染物的生态毒理效应和风险评估研究进展

环境生态风险评估（ERA）流程已经被纳入全球环境政策中,既用于规范新化学物质的授权和营销（前瞻性环境生态风险评估）,也用于评估潜在的污染场地（回顾性环境生态风险评估）。将土壤生态毒理学应用于风险评估,能阐明有毒物质对土壤生态系统中生命有机体的危害程度与范围。笔者主要介绍了应用评估因子法和物种敏感度分布法对基于效应数据进行的外推与估算,并综述了欧美等主要国家和地区的土壤生态风险评估框架、相关法律法规及其实施情况等,为中国开展土壤污染物生态毒理效应和风险评估等相关研究提供参考。     

The fate and behaviour of enhanced natural radioactivity with respect to environmental protection

In contrast to the monitoring and prevention of occupational radiation risk caused by enhanced natural radioactivity, relatively little attention has been paid to the environmental impact associated with residues containing enhanced activity concentration of naturally occurring radionuclides. Such materials are often deposited directly into the environment, a practice which is strictly forbidden in the management of other types of radioactive waste. In view of the new trends in radiation protection, the need to consider the occurrence of anthropogenically enhanced natural radioactivity as a particular unique case of environmental hazard is quite apparent. Residues containing high activity concentrations of some natural radionuclides differ from radioactive materials arising from the nuclear industry. In addition, the radiation risk is usually combined with the risk caused by other pollutants. As such and to date, there are no precise regulations regarding this matter and moreover, the non-nuclear industry is often not aware of potential environmental problems caused by natural radioactivity. This article discusses aspects of environmental radiation risks caused by anthropogenically enhanced natural radioactivity stored at unauthorised sites. Difficulties and inconclusiveness in the application of recommendations and models for radiation risk assessment are explored. General terms such as “environmental effects” and the basic parameters necessary to carry out consistent and comparable Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) have been developed and defined.     

Suggestions for integrating EIA and economic development in the Caribbean region

Conflicts between economic development and fragile natural resources represent a growing problem among the islands of the Caribbean. Relatively simple methods exist to incorporate environmental impact assessment (EIA) into development planning and review. These methods can save scarce financial resources for island nations, increase their control over the development process, and possibly forestall widespread environmental deterioration and its attendant public cost. Island nations have more power as negotiating partners in the development process than is generally realized. This power can be exercised if EIA is integrated into the national planning process, giving ministries a stronger bargaining position when negotiating with development interests.This paper begins with a discussion of the most prevalent environmental concerns in the region, including oil development, water supply, beach erosion and fisheries depletion, and proceeds to discuss practical solutions to improve local control over economic development and environmental resource management. A hypothetical case study is used to illustrate major obstacles to effective integration of economic development and EIA. Recommendations are included to advance the state-of-the-art of EIA using joint fact-finding, expanding participation in EIA, evaluating cumulative impacts and project alternatives, and conducting post-projecting monitoring.     

Development and Application of Computer Simulation Tools for Ecological Risk Assessment

Based on a review of available models for ecological risk estimation, most are site-specific and their applications are limited. However, general models, which can be easily adapted to other sites, remain few, in addition, they are simple and associated with significant uncertainties. In this paper, an approach is introduced for an ecological risk assessment (ERA) model that can be modified for site-specific conditions. Using computer simulation as a screening tool for ecological risk assessment can assist environmental managers and policy decision-makers in the planning and implementation of potentially highly focused assessments and remediation, should the ERA dictate the need. The model was integrated with a Windows-based interface and interactive database management system (DBMS) as a user-friendly software package. In addition, based on trophic sources, a food web has been integrated into the framework of the DBMS. In an effort to evaluate the model, a case study was implemented to characterize the effects on an ecosystem of replacing electroplated chromium coatings with sputtered tantalum at U.S. Army Yuma and Aberdeen Proving Grounds. Potential exposure pathways included ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption for terrestrial animals; root and foliar uptake for plants; and direct absorption for aquatic species. Overall, results showed that the most significant exposure resulted from molybdenum and hexavalent chromium, which posed higher risks to select aquatic and terrestrial species at both sites. On the other hand, tantalum (with vanadium as the surrogate) resulted in the least risk to all receptors within the studied areas. A sensitivity analysis demonstrated that soil-water distribution coefficients have a significant impact on the results. Based on the results, neither molybdenum nor chromium are recommended as a coating in gun barrels, and further study would be essential to address any affected firing range area. Tantalum is recommended for use, although for those species receiving a slight adverse risk, field investigations that include receptor sampling maybe necessary once soil/sediment and water sampling validates projected concentrations.     

Weighing the evidence of ecological risk from PAHs contamination in the estuarine environment of Salina Cruz Bay, México

Results of bulk-phase chemical measurements, toxicological tests combined with bioaccumulation measures in fishes, were used to evaluate the toxicity of the 16 USEPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from the sediment collected from eight stations of the Ventosa Estuarine System, located close to the main center of processing oil in the Mexican Pacific coast. Levels of the sum of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons varied from 22 to 6,850 μg kg^???1 dry weight. Based on sediment quality guidelines, the compounds with high environmental priority were acenaphtylene, acenaphtene, and phenanthrene. Acute toxicity tests with Vibrio fischeri and Daphnia magna as well as chronic toxicity with Panagrellus redivivus were performed. The quantification of hepatic ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase activity was used to assess the induction of the mixed function oxygenase system of brown trout. However, because it is often difficult to blend the results from such very different assays into a unified decision about the potential for impacts, a weight-of-evidence (WOE) approach to sediment quality investigations was followed. These assays provided measurement endpoints that could be used to develop an overall evaluation of the potential for environmental impacts from the oil processing operations. WOE provides a valuable tool for assessing the results of environmental investigations because it provides a framework for considering the strengths and weaknesses of environmental measurements, an approach for addressing uncertainty in the measurements, and documentation of the evaluation and its assumptions.     

A more comprehensive and quantitative approach to corporate sustainability

This study proposes a new quantitative methodology and extendable framework to assess corporate sustainability more comprehensively and to capture interrelationships across the multiple domains of sustainability. A case study from the mining industry is presented to demonstrate the application of this new approach and its ability to extract meaningful insights regarding the company's progress towards sustainability. The comprehensive sustainability target method (CSTM) is a novel extension to an existing environmental burden sustainability assessment technique with additional focus on impacts within and across the societal and social justice domain. CSTM extends sustainability assessment recognizing planetary limits from human activity and relevant societal and community-based targets by formalizing assessment to include social and environmental beneficial impacts, as well as the interdependencies between the economic, environmental and societal domains. Outcomes from the mining industry case study reveal new insights into the sustainability of corporate operations as the comprehensive assessment framework provides a deeper and more extensive evaluation as compared to traditional sustainability assessments and corporate disclosures. In addition to maximal earth carrying capacity estimates for environmental burden targets, this study proposes that companies should assess sustainability for minimal limits applying to social beneficial impacts and maximal limits for social burden impacts. The overall theoretical construct and framework are presented to illustrate the robustness and extendibility of the technique to broadly incorporate various sustainability domains, assessment boundaries, and temporal considerations.     

关于建立健全我国环境健康风险评估制度的思考

环境健康风险评估是生态环境和卫生健康管理决策制定的重要依据之一,从政策制定、技术规范、制度试点、能力建设和管理应用等方面分析了我国环境健康风险评估工作现状。指出,我国环境健康风险评估制度存在各部门对环境健康风险评估的认识偏差,部门职责不清晰,管理需求不明确,技术体系不完善等问题。提出,生态环境和卫生健康部门应结合各自职责与需求制定相关工作办法,开展试点探索,条件成熟时制定专门法律;厘清生态环境和卫生健康部门在环境健康风险管理中的职责;紧密围绕生态环境和卫生健康管理需求,开展环境健康风险评估工作;借鉴国外经验,完善环境健康风险评估技术规范体系;从机构设置、技术队伍培训、合作共享、学术交流等方面提升环境健康风险评估能力。     

Evolutionary consequences for ecological risk assessment and management

The human health risk assessment (HRA) paradigm is being used as a basis for developing ecological risk assessment (ERA). The modification of the HRA paradigm to ERA will be most useful in an ecotoxicological sense, to assess the effect of hazards to single indicator species and populations, rather than to ecosystems. However, even for single species and population assessments, there are major differences in HRA and ERA. One such difference derives from the HRA tenet that human impairment at any age is important, and that each individual is important. For ERA, individuals are less important, and it is the population and its survival and interactions that are of concern. One exception is in the case of endangered species where every individual is critical because of its potential impact on survival and genetic diversity of the species. We suggest that ERA must take into account the relative reproductive value of the potentially impacted individuals in assessing hazards. This will involve adding additional steps to evaluate the value of the individual to current population levels, assessing reproductive value, and assessing recovery potential. Although ecologists recognize the importance of these factors, we suggest that they should be integral parts of ecological risk assessment.     

Ecotoxicological Classification of the Berlin River System Using Bioassays in Respect to the European Water Framework Directive

Bioassays as well as biochemical responses (biomarkers) in ecosystems due to environmental stress provide us with signals (environmentally signalling) of potential damage in the environment. If these responses are perceived in this early stage in ecosystems, the eventual damage can be prevented. Once ecosystem damage has occurred, the remedial action processes for recovery could be expensive and pose certain logistical problems. Ideally, “early warning signals” in ecosystems using sensing systems of biochemical responses (biomarkers) would not only tell us the initial levels of damage, but these signals will also provide us with answers by the development of control strategies and precautionary measures in respect to the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). Clear technical guidelines or technical specifications on monitoring are necessary to establish and characterise reference conditions for use in an ecological status classification system for surface water bodies. For the Ecotoxicological Risk Assessment (ERA) of endocrine effects we used an approach of the exposure – dose – response concept. Based on the “Ecototoxicological Classification System of Sediments” that uses pT-values to classify effects in different river systems, we transferred the bio-monitoring data to the five-level ecological system of the WFD. To understand the complexity of the structure of populations and processes behind the health of populations, communities and ecosystems an ERA should establish links between natural factors, chemicals, and biological responses so as to assess causality. So, our ecological monitoring assessment has incorporated exposure & effects data.     

Review of PSR framework and development of a DPSIR model to assess greenhouse effect in Taiwan

In dealing with the complex issues of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and climate change mitigation, many interrelated factors such as cost, level of technology development, supply and demand of energy, structure of industry, and expenditures on research and development exist. Using indicators to monitor environmental impacts and evaluate the efficacies of policies and regulations has been practiced for a long time, and it can serve as a useful tool for decision making and for comparison between different countries. Although numerous indicators have been developed for relevant subjects, integrated approaches that consider individual changes, dynamic interaction, and multi-dimensions of indicators are scarce. This paper aimed to develop a Driving Force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework to assess the problems. This DPSIR model is mainly related to energy consumption, environmental impacts, and policy responses. The objectives of the paper were: (1) conduct a literature review on the indicators that have been used in GHG-related studies; (2) develop a DPSIR model that incorporates GHG-related indicators and evaluate their relationships using a cause?Ceffect chain of GHG emission; and (3) develop a calculative method that can be used to explain the dynamic correlation among the interdependent indicators. Taiwan is a significant source of global GHG emissions. A case study, using the developed framework and Taiwan??s actual data of the past two decades, was conducted. The results indicate that regulatory strategies for pollution control are inadequate in terms of ensuring environmental quality, and the nature does not have the capability to revert the impacts from the existing level of pollution.     

Tiered aquatic ecological risk assessment of organochlorine pesticides and their mixture in Jiangsu reach of Huaihe River, China

A tiered approach consisting of several probabilistic options was used to refine aquatic ecological risk assessment (ERA) of individuals and mixture of various Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs) detected in Jiangsu reach of Huaihe River, China. The tiered approach ranged from determined Hazard Quotient (HQ) to Joint Probability Curve and Monte Carlo simulation based HQ-distribution. The results from all levels of ERA methods in the tiered framework are consistent with each other. The results show that Endrin, o,p'-Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT), alpha-Endosulfan and beta-Endosulfan posed clear ecological risk; p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD, Aldrin, Heptachlorepoxide and Methoxychlor posed potential risk; while Hexachlorocyclohexanes, Heptachlor, Dieldrin and Hexachlorobenzene posed negligible risk. Further, based on the concept of total equivalent concentration, combined ecological risk caused by the mixture of all detected OCPs was calculated, and it proved to be significantly higher than the risk caused by any individual OCP. Despite inevitable uncertainties in current ERA, a comprehensive tiered approach can help to get a more credible result of risks of individuals and mixture of hazardous pollutants and screen the major risk pollutants contributing to the combined ecological risk.     

河流重油泄漏事故的应急监测

介绍了河流重油泄漏事故的应急监测,包括监测方案制定、监测点位设置、分析对象确定、跟踪监测、数据分析等。重油污染可通过监测水体中的石油类进行。监测结果表明,重油泄漏事故在短期内对水环境造成了严重影响,清除完全后,水体可逐步恢复正常。重油污染具有一定的持久性,在事发后需要对水体进行长期的跟踪监测。     

基于ICI蒙德法的环境风险评价应用研究

以《建设项目环境风险评价技术导则》(HJ/T 169—2004)、《危险化学品重大危险源辨识》(GB 18218—2009)为依据,确定环境风险分析的研究线路,对评价单元进行风险识别,确定事故源项与风险因素。运用火灾、爆炸、毒性指标评价法(蒙德法)对环境风险进行评价,根据相关设计资料,选取各个参数,最后定量分析出单元的环境风险状况,提出针对性的管理措施,把风险降到最低。     

Sub-soil contamination due to oil spills in zones surrounding oil pipeline-pump stations and oil pipeline right-of-ways in Southwest-Mexico

Oil spills due to oil pipelines is a very frequent problem in Mexico. Petroleos Mexicanos (PEMEX), very concerned with the environmental agenda, has been developing inspection and correction plans for zones around oil pipelines pumping stations and pipeline right-of-way. These stations are located at regular intervals of kilometres along the pipelines. In this study, two sections of an oil pipeline and two pipeline pumping stations zones are characterized in terms of the presence of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPHs) and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). The study comprehends sampling of the areas, delimitation of contamination in the vertical and horizontal extension, analysis of the sampled soils regarding TPHs content and, in some cases, the 16 PAHs considered as priority by USEPA, calculation of areas and volumes contaminated (according to Mexican legislation, specifically NOM-EM-138-ECOL-2002) and, finally, a proposal for the best remediation techniques suitable for the contamination levels and the localization of contaminants.     

Cumulative risk assessment for an urban agglomeration based on a relative risk model and multi-media fugacity model: A case study in Guangdong province,China

Urban agglomeration, which is an organism with distinct organizational characteristics, differs from a single city. In its policy-level environmental impact assessment, the ecological and health risks need to be addressed in a unified manner, because multiple cities interact and influence each other, and the environmental risks have multiple elements, multiple processes, and multiple effect interaction and superposition. To this end, this study proposed a regional-level cumulative risk assessment framework coupling a relative risk model (RRM) with a multi-media fugacity model (MFM). The RRM translated the risk causal relations into four city-differentiated matrices, which consisted of normalized factors (NFs), ranging from 0 to 1, that were indicative of the impact intensity and possibility. The MFM was embedded into the RRM to generate the NFs. The NFs were multiplied for each city-source-endpoint combination to get the overall risk score, and the score provided policy references. This framework was applied to Guangdong Province of China (GD). As heavy metal contamination is one of the GD's major concerns, this study analyzed their cumulative risks due to industrialization for the year 2020 and compared the city level and industrial level risk scores. The results showed that the central part of GD was under the highest risk, with Guangzhou, Foshan, and Jiangmen having the highest risk. From the perspective of the risk pressure sources, Pb and Cd were the biggest stressors. Non-ferrous/ferrous metals mining and processing and metal products manufacturing were the major threats. As these industries gain greater footholds in the GD's ecologically susceptible region, the relevant policies should be elaborately designed before new entrants commence their operations.     

A docking-based receptor library of antibiotics and its novel application in predicting chronic mixture toxicity for environmental risk assessment

As organisms are typically exposed to chemical mixtures over long periods of time, chronic mixture toxicity is the best way to perform an environmental risk assessment (ERA). However, it is difficult to obtain the chronic mixture toxicity data due to the high expense and the complexity of the data acquisition method. Therefore, an approach was proposed in this study to predict chronic mixture toxicity. The acute (15 min exposure) and chronic (24 h exposure) toxicity of eight antibiotics and trimethoprim to Vibrio fischeri were determined in both single and binary mixtures. The results indicated that the risk quotients (RQs) of antibiotics should be based on the chronic mixture toxicity. To predict the chronic mixture toxicity, a docking-based receptor library of antibiotics and the receptor-library-based quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) model were developed. Application of the developed QSAR model to the ERA of antibiotic mixtures demonstrated that there was a close affinity between RQs based on the observed chronic toxicity and the corresponding RQs based on the predicted data. The average coefficients of variations were 46.26 and 34.93 % and the determination coefficients (R ²) were 0.999 and 0.998 for the low concentration group and the high concentration group, respectively. This result convinced us that the receptor library would be a promising tool for predicting the chronic mixture toxicity of antibiotics and that it can be further applied in ERA.     

Coping with uncertainty in environmental impact assessments: Open techniques

Uncertainty is virtually unavoidable in environmental impact assessments (EIAs). From the literature related to treating and managing uncertainty, we have identified specific techniques for coping with uncertainty in EIAs. Here, we have focused on basic steps in the decision-making process that take place within an EIA setting. More specifically, we have identified uncertainties involved in each decision-making step and discussed the extent to which these can be treated and managed in the context of an activity or project that may have environmental impacts. To further demonstrate the relevance of the techniques identified, we have examined the extent to which the EIA guidelines currently used in Colombia consider and provide guidance on managing the uncertainty involved in these assessments. Some points that should be considered in order to provide greater robustness in impact assessments in Colombia have been identified. These include the management of stakeholder values, the systematic generation of project options, and their associated impacts as well as the associated management actions, and the evaluation of uncertainties and assumptions. We believe that the relevant and specific techniques reported here can be a reference for future evaluations of other EIA guidelines in different countries.     

Guidelines for the analysis of the inclusion of biodiversity in Environmental Impact Statements

Article 14 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) calls for the inclusion of impacts on biodiversity in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), which is a significant instrument for site-specific impact prediction. In view of the shortcomings reported for Environmental Impact Statements (EISs), guidelines with indicators could improve the consideration of biological diversity in EISs. This study aims to establish guidelines for the analysis of the inclusion of biodiversity in EISs using a systematic approach based on scientific papers, CBD, and a survey with 43 EIA practitioners from universities, government agencies, environmental consulting companies, business segment, and the third sector. The guidelines comprise 60 indicators arranged into eight categories about the project's characteristics, methods, baseline, impact assessment, alternatives, as well as mitigation, compensation, and monitoring measures. The guidelines also include the levels of biological diversity (ecosystem, species, and genetic diversity), the three elements of biodiversity (composition, structure, and key processes), and the main anthropogenic threats. Thus, the guidelines represent a methodological contribution to EIA that could support decision making and future systematic reviews of EISs.