黄土小流域水沙输移过程对土地利用/覆被变化的响应

以甘肃定西安家沟小流域为典型研究区,基于TM、ALOS遥感影像解译和地面长期水文数据,深入分析了1997至2010年间流域土地利用变化特征及其产流产沙效应。结果显示,（1）14年间,流域林灌草面积分别增加160.23%、176.33%和80.75%;坡耕地、居民地、裸地和梯田面积分别减少25.57%、0.16%、48.45%和21.52%。以2005年为时间节点,发现前期灌草增加较多、裸地减少明显,后期则是乔木增加比例和坡耕地减少比例更为显著,彰显出不同历史阶段植被恢复的策略变化。（2）流域出口多年平均径流量和输沙量分别由前期的18 249 m3和6 383 kg锐减至后期的2 292 m3和2 267 kg,流域土地利用/覆被有效增加是其主要驱动。（3）春冬季节,由于降雨稀少、径流泥沙的本底值很低,前后两个阶段的水沙输移量差异较小,土地利用/覆被变化的影响相对尚不显著。但在夏秋季节,随着降雨事件增多,土地利用/覆被变化减水减沙的效应趋于显性化。     

REDD+ comes with money,not with development: an analysis of post-pilot project scenarios from the community forestry of Nepal Himalaya

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) attracts poor nations to keep their forest standing only to sequester carbon through monetary incentives. However, in countries like Nepal where forest is an integral part of social practices, communities need to keep using forests for making a living. Based on household survey, field interview, personal observation, and broad review of forestry legislations, this paper scrutinizes villagers’ experiences of changes in forest management after implementation of a REDD+ pilot project in nine Community Forestry Users Groups (CFUGs) of Nepal. Since REDD+ was not initiated by local communities but tacitly implemented by international NGOs, most villagers lacked knowledge about it and the associated benefits from the pilot project, thus fewer villagers were found to be motivated to participate in the pilot project. Consequently, it delinked villagers from their forest by implicitly tightening uses rules, which resulted in constraints to fetch forest products. In addition, REDD+ benefits were distributed to some poor households but not to all, which resulted to an antagonistic sentiment in the villages. Thus, a rigorous assessment of conditions and framework of REDD+ and an involvement of local community from the start without compromising in the uses of forest products is of the utmost importance before considering the REDD+ framework as an alternative or as similar to CFUG in Nepal. Alternatively, REDD+ can be a part or a development project under the CFUG’s framework, which could be socially as well as legally acceptable on the present situation.     

红壤坡地降雨产流产沙动态过程模拟试验研究

研究以浙江省兰溪水土保持综合试验站为研究基地,通过设定特定植被覆盖度（15%）不同坡度（8°、15°、20°）的径流试验小区,小区面积为2m2,采用野外人工模拟降雨试验方法,对降雨强度（0.8～2.9mm·min-1）范围内,红壤坡地产流和产沙随雨强和坡度的变化特性进行了模拟试验。通过32场模拟降雨试验数据的分析,得出结论如下：①产沙量与雨强呈指数函数关系,产流量与雨强呈幂函数关系,径流量与产沙量的相关性大于雨强与径流、雨强与产沙;②随坡度的增大,产流时刻提前,泥沙起动和产沙突增的雨强临界减小;③随坡度增大,累积产沙量的递增速率比累积径流量的递增速率要快;④场降雨侵蚀模数与雨强的相关性随着坡度的增大而增强。     

农业生态与土地退化的土壤微形态研究

简要地介绍了土壤微形态研究方法及其在农业生态与土地退化研究中的应用,并回顾了近20a的国际土壤微形态研究的内容与进展.在过去的20a中,土壤微形态学在概念、现象的解释、分析技术'以及应用上都取得了前所未有的进展.特别在样品脱水方法、荧光分析、图象处理及定量分析技术上得到很大的发展.植物根系与土壤微结构的关系,土壤改良对结构的影响等方面研究取得一定的成就.利用土壤微形态研究农业生态系统中的根系与根际的生态过程,作物对水分和养分的吸收过程,人为活动对土壤退化,熟化的微形态指标,以及利用微形态指标评价人为因素在现代土壤过程中的作用等,是土壤微形态研究的最新动态.     

Evaluation of SWAT sub-daily runoff estimation at small agricultural watershed in Korea

A study was undertaken for the prediction of runoff flow from 0.8 ha field-sized agricultural watershed in South Korea using Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) sub-daily. The SWAT model with sub-daily configuration predicted flow from the watershed within the range of acceptable accuracy. The SWAT sub-daily simulations were carried out for a total of 18 rainfall events, 9 each for calibration and validation. Overall trend and extent of matching simulated flow for the rainfall events in 2007-2008 with measured data during the calibration process were coefficient of determination (R²) value of 0.88 and Nash and Sutcliffe Efficiency (E_NS) value of 0.88. For validation, R² and E_NS values were 0.9 and 0.84, respectively. Whereas R² and E_NS values for simulation results using daily rainfall data were 0.79 and -0.01, respectively, that were observed to be out of acceptable limits for the model simulation. The importance of higher time resolution (hourly) precipitation records for flow simulation were evaluated by comparing R² and E_NS with 15 min, 2 h, 6 h and 12 h precipitation data, which resulted in lower statistics with increases in time resolution of precipitation data. The SWAT sub-daily sensitivity analysis was performed with the consideration of hydraulic parameter and was found as in the rank order of CN2 (curve number), ESCO (soil evaporation compensation factor), GW_DELAY (ground water delay time), ALPHA_BF ( base flow alpha factor), GWQMN ( a threshold minimum depth of water in the shallow aquifer required for return flow to occur) , REVAPMN (minimum depth of water in shallow aquifer for re-evaporation to occur) , LAT_TIME (lateral flow travel time) respectively. These sensitive parameters were evaluated at 10% higher and lower values of the parameters, corresponding to 70.5% higher and 23.2% lower in simulated flow out from the SWAT model. From the results obtained in this study, hourly precipitation record for SWAT sub-daily with Green-Ampt infiltration method was proven to be efficient for runoff estimation at field sized watershed with higher accuracies that could be efficiently used to develop site-specific Best Management Practices (BMPs) considering rainfall intensity, rather than simply using daily rainfall data.     

降雨中有机氯农药土壤-水界面迁移过程的实验模拟

以人工降雨实验模拟的方法,对有机氯农药在降雨过程中非点源污染的产生进行了研究.结果表明,在降雨过程中,表层径流中有机氯农药的输出量高于土壤渗流液.土壤径流中有机氯农药浓度的输出呈现先下降后平缓的趋势.土壤有机质影响着降雨过程中有机氯农药浓度的输出变化趋势.泥炭土径流中有机氯农药的输出量相对较高.有机氯农药残留总量沿土壤剖面的总体变化趋势为随深度增加而下降,其峰值出现在0—5 cm,反映了污染物的转移规律.泥炭土中有机氯农药的残留量最低.泥炭土、黄褐土和风沙土中有机氯农药含量的峰值均出现在第2次和第3次采样时间,但在30 d后有机氯农药的残留量仍较高,表明有机氯农药在土壤中残留时间长,可能存在着一定的生态风险.     

Effects of alfalfa coverage on runoff, erosion and hydraulic characteristics of overland flow on loess slope plots

An evaluation of the interactions between vegetation, overland and soil erosion can provide valuable insight for the conservation of soil and water. An experiment was conducted to study water infiltration, runoff generation process, rate of sediment erosion, and hydrodynamic characteristics of overland flow from a sloping hillside with different draw-off discharges from alfalfa and control plots with 20° slope. The effect of alfalfa on runoff and sediment transport reduction was quantitatively analyzed. Alfalfa was discussed for its ability to reduce the overland flow scouring force or change the runoff movement. Compared to the bare-soil plots, alfalfa plots generated a 1.77 times increase in infiltration rate. Furthermore, the down-slope water infiltration rate for the bare soil plots was higher than in the up-slope, while the opposite was found in the alfalfa plots. In addition, alfalfa had a significant effect on runoff and sediment yield. In comparison to the control, the runoff coefficient and sediment transportation rate decreased by 28.3% and 78.4% in the grass slope, respectively. The runoff generated from the alfalfa and bare-soil plots had similar trends with an initial increase and subsequent leveling to a steady-state rate. The transport of sediment reduced with time as a consequence of the depletion of loose surface materials. The maximum sediment concentration was recorded within the first few minutes of each event. The alfalfa plots had subcritical flow while the bare-soil plots had supercritical flow, which indicate that the capability of the alfalfa slope for resisting soil erosion and sediment movement was greater than for bare soil plots. Moreover, the flow resistance coefficient and roughness coefficient for the alfalfa plots were both higher than for the bare-soil plots, which indicate that overland flow in alfalfa plots had retarded and was blocked, and the flow energy along the runoff path had gradually dissipated. Finally, the ability to erode and transport sediment had decreased.     

乌江流域水沙特性变化分析

对乌江流域水沙特性变化进行分析,是解决长江上游泥沙问题、提高水资源利用率和防灾减灾的根本出发点,同时可为喀斯特地区水土流失治理和生态恢复提供理论依据.文章通过对乌江流域主要水文站鸭池河站、乌江渡站和思南站的降雨-径流-泥沙随时间的变化、降雨-径流和径流-泥沙的相关性和双累积曲线进行分析,研究结果为:降雨量、径流模数和输沙模数随时间的变化无明显趋势,历年输沙模数是鸭池河>乌江渡>思南.1980年以后由于实施了大量水土保持工程使得输沙模数大量减少.在年均径流模数相同的情况下,1971-1979年这一时期的产沙量要高于1961-1970年.从1971年开始输沙模数相对于径流而言出现趋势性增多,这主要是由人类活动造成.三个站点的双累积曲线变化趋势相似,说明人类活动对河流泥沙的影响,既取决于人类活动的方式、程度,也受制于流域环境条件.     

不同退化程度喀斯特生态系统根际土壤的养分分布特征

以贵州中部喀斯特地区由乔木林、灌木林和灌草丛等不同退化程度生态系统中的优势物种根际土壤为研究对象,测定其C、N、P全量及有效态质量分数,分析各优势物种根际土壤的养分变化。结果表明：3个生态系统中不同优势物种根际各类土壤养分质量分数变化较大,其中,土壤C、N、P养分为乔木林中园果化香根际土壤质量分数最高,白枥根际养分质量分数最低。可溶性有机碳质量分数为乔木林中最低,其平均水平不超过10 mg·kg-1。土壤磷素的供给能力为乔木林的园果化香和刺秋相对较强,其中园果化香中达到1.5%。而且优势树种间根际土壤有效态养分质量分数的差异明显高于全量养分,说明喀斯特地区根际土壤养分差异性主要受植被因素的影响,土壤有效态养分较全量养分对植被群落演替的响应更为灵敏,而且根际土壤养分质量分数和形态的变化与土壤有机碳质量分数有显著的正相关关系,这进一步说明喀斯特地区植被类型的变化对土壤养分的循环利用具有重要的影响作用。     

Assessment of land degradation and its impact on crop production in the Dry Zone of Myanmar

Land degradation in terms of soil degradation is a major environmental issue posing threat to sustainable livelihood in the semi-arid region of Central Myanmar. However, the studies on soil degradation status and its impacts in this region are very scanty. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of land degradation on crop production both in terms of area and yield in the Dry Zone of Myanmar. Remote sensing and geographic information system-based modelling was utilized to assess and map soil erosion rates. Household survey was conducted to understand the causes of land degradation and its impacts on crop productivity and livelihoods. It has been found out that the current rate of soil erosion ranged from 0 to 114 t ha^–1 yr^–1, and that the average rate of soil erosion increased from 14.2 to 54.6 t ha^–1 yr^–1 over a period from 2000 to 2012. The major types of land degradation were physical and chemical soil degradation. Farmers identified topographic condition, soil types, improper crop management practices and climatic factors as the main causes of soil erosion. The observed crop yields of monsoon rice, groundnut, sesame and cotton in the highly degraded area were 3–12 times lower compared with the yields of these crops grown in less degraded area. Livelihoods of the farmers in the high-degraded area were affected by crop yield reduction, increased cultivation cost and increased uncultivable land area. The impact of land degradation on crop production was dependent on the severity of degradation. This suggests that advanced conservation measures are immediately required and the supportive policy strategies need to be implemented to educate farmers and to strengthen extension services for sustainable land management in the Dry Zone of Myanmar.     

黄土丘陵区降雨、径流、土壤水分的时空分布与利用对策

基于黄土丘陵区的延安燕沟多年监测资料，通过对燕沟流域的降雨、径流、及其不同土地利用方式下土壤水分等时空分布特征分析，明确了黄土丘陵区降雨的时间、空间分布具有显著差异性。降雨量在6～9月相对集中，年际、月际变异大；同时次降雨量、月降雨量均存在显著空间异质性，如降雨量沿燕沟沟道变化及坡向分异。径流特征是降雨及其下垫面特征的综合反映，3月左右由于气温上升，河道解冻，径流量出现小高峰，雨季后2个月出现最大高峰水量。对径流的利用则由于供水／需水时间错位，利用主要集中在枯水季节（4-6月），土壤水资源由于地形、降雨、植被覆盖等的差异性，特别是植被差异性利用，则存在时空异质性。土壤水分在雨季后1-2月在0～150cm形成高值期，150cm以下的土壤恢复缓慢。植被差异利用形成了土壤水分剖面不同：梯田〉草地〉拧条林〉拧条＋五角枫林〉沙棘林〉刺槐林。根据对水资源系统分析，提出了流域水资源开发利用的对策：农作物适雨种植制度；植被空间合理布局；降雨、土壤水、径流三水联合御旱，提高水资源利用效率。     

不同利用方式下黄壤旱坡地磷素状况及环境影响分析

通过对贵州黄壤进行采样以及采用无界径流小区法收集地表径流,探索不同利用方式下黄壤旱坡地磷素水平及其地表径流磷浓度的差异。结果表明,不同利用方式下黄壤旱坡地中全磷和有效磷(Olsen-P)含量的大小顺序为连作烟地>烤烟-玉米轮作地>连作玉米地>林地;CaCl_2浸提磷(土壤易解吸磷)和Na0H浸提磷(藻类可利用的土壤总磷)与土壤全磷和有效磷有显著的相关性;土壤富磷化的同时,其磷素的流失风险明显地提高。连作烟地地表径流总磷(TP)和磷酸根态磷(Ortho-P)浓度明显大于连作玉米地.而林地地表径流TP浓度明显小于旱地;黄壤旱坡地地表径流中TP和Ortho-P与土壤有效磷之间存在极显著的相关性(r为0.957、0.875),因而连作烟地磷素的环境影响潜能明显高于其它旱地以及林地。     

土地退化研究综述

在归纳总结国内外学者对土地退化的概念内涵界定的基础上，综述了土地退化机理、类型划分、评价与监测、及防治与生态重建等方面的国内外研究进展，并在此基础上提出了进一步深入研究我国土地退化问题的方向：1)土地退化评价指标体系的研究；2)土地退化监测与预警的系统研究；3)重点土地退化类型及其退化机制研究；4)退化土地生态重建的原理、方法及技术体系；5)用经济手段进行生态环境建设；6)构建退化土地生态重建的政策保障体系；7)重建技术与模式的试验示范。     

长江口浮游植物分布情况及与径流关系的初步探讨

利用2004—2008年5月（春季）和8月（夏季）共10个季度月航次调查资料,结合同时期长江口径流量的数据,研究了长江口海域浮游植物的分布特征、及其受长江径流影响的关系。分布情况的结果显示：同一年中,夏季调查航次鉴定的浮游植物种类数明显多于春季的种类数;浮游植物数量的基本趋势逐年增加,其中2008年调查航次的浮游植物数量急剧暴发;同时生物多样性指数呈逐年下降趋势,海域水质污染程度日趋严重。对浮游植物与长江口径流量的关系分析得到：拟合长江口5、8月平均径流量与对应调查航次的浮游植物数量呈正相关的幂函数关系,径流量与浮游植物多样度呈负相关的指数函数关系,径流量与浮游植物优势种数量百分比呈正相关的幂函数关系,关系都明显显著。其中长江口径流量的输入对优势种尤其是近岸低盐性的中肋骨条藻（Skeletonema costatum）分布有着决定性的影响;长江径流把大量的N、P等无机营养物质携带入海,导致长江口水域严重富营养化,造成长江口海域的局部区域频发赤潮。     

蔬菜地土壤磷提取及模拟径流中磷素潜在流失的影响

蔬菜地磷素流失是一种典型农业非点源污染类型。通过观测地表径流中溶解态反应磷(DRP)、生物可利用磷(BAP)可以监测土壤磷素流失程度。受到各种客观条件的限制,这两个指标比较难于获取,而土壤中的总磷(TP)、Olsen(OP)、Mehlich-1(M-1P)和水溶性磷(Pw)可以通过常规分析手段获取。本文选取27个典型蔬菜样地,分析测定各样地土壤中的总磷(TP)、Olsen(OP)、Mehlich-1(M-1P)和水溶性磷(Pw)四个磷提取变量,采用了经典方法计算土壤磷流失潜能指标——磷吸持饱和度(DPS)。同时采用模拟径流实验得出典型蔬菜样地地表径流样中溶解态反应磷(DRP)、生物可利用磷(BAP)。结果表明:M-1P、Pw与DPS呈极显著正相关,相关系数分别达到了0.85和0.74(p<0.01);而M-1P、Pw与DRP浓度相关系数(r2=0.843和0.786,p<0.01)大于TP、OP与DRP浓度的相关系数(r2=0.554和0.722,p<0.01)。结论认为,通过测定M-1P、Pw和计算DPS能比较准确、便捷地预测土壤径流磷素流失风险程度。     

高寒草甸土地退化及其恢复重建对土壤碳氮含量的影响

针对我国青藏高原草地大面积退化及由此引发的一系列生态环境问题,从土壤生态功能恢复和区域可持续发展的角度出发,将原生高寒嵩草草甸封育系统作为对照,研究了土地退化对土壤碳氮含量的影响,检验了不同人工重建措施(3个人工种植处理:混播、松耙单播、翻耕单播和1个自然恢复处理)对土壤碳含量的相对影响程度。研究结果如下:原生植被封育处理每平方米土壤平均碳、氮含量分别为7.47kg和0.647kg,而重度退化地碳、氮含量分别为3.67和0.448kg·m-2,可以推算,由于土地退化而造成的土壤(0~20cm层)碳氮丢失量分别为3.80kg·m-2和0.199kg·m-2,即高寒草甸土地退化导致0~20cm土壤层中50.87%的有机碳和30.75%的氮流失,可以看出高寒草甸土壤退化后流失的碳比氮多;混播处理、松耙单播处理、翻耕单播处理和自然恢复处理土壤单位面积有机碳含量分别是原生植被土壤有机碳的70.5%,69.0%,49.0%和80%,单位面积氮含量分别是原生植被土壤全氮的86.9%,88.7%,71.1%和91.7%。但是,与重度退化地相比,除翻耕单播处理外,其它恢复重建措施均能部分恢复系统的碳氮含量,因此,将重度退化地进行自然恢复或松耙混播重建多年生植被可以作为系统固定碳(碳汇)的一个途径。     

辽宁浑河流域不同土地类型地表径流和壤中流氮、磷流失特征

采用人工模拟降雨的试验方法,研究了辽宁浑河流域主要土地利用类型的土壤在地表径流和壤中流中所产生的氮、磷流失特征。结果表明,（1）地表径流和壤中流氮、磷流失特征差异显著,地表径流氮、磷输出浓度均表现为降雨初期较高而后逐渐趋于稳定的特征;壤中流氮、磷输出浓度在整个径流过程中保持相对稳定。（2）在整个降雨径流过程中,耕地与草地氮、磷流失均以地表径流为主,随壤中流流失的氮、磷占输出量的比例较小。（3）耕地与草地中地表径流和壤中流氮、磷流失差异表明,土壤的水分下渗滤减机制对氮、磷流失具有很大的削减作用,草地中对总磷的削减作用尤为显著,可达90%以上。     

北京城区屋面径流中PAHs的污染特征与来源解析

以北京典型城区屋面径流中的PAHs为研究对象,在2008年雨季采集了不同地点的屋面径流,分析了溶解相和颗粒相PAHs的质量浓度,对屋面径流中PAHs的质量浓度特征、时空变化规律及来源进行了讨论。结果表明,屋面径流具有较严重的PAHs污染,16种PAHs在溶解相中的总质量浓度为563.85~937.01 ng.L-1,来源主要是机动车排放（31.9%）、煤燃烧（39.6%）、天然气燃烧（15.3%）及石油类的挥发（14.2%）;在颗粒相中的总质量浓度为844.48~1372.62 ng.L-1,来源主要包括燃煤（51.8%）、汽油（38.1%）和柴油（10.1%）的燃烧等。BaP的EMC平均值（172 ng.L-1）远远超过我国污水排放标准（30 ng.L-1）,且以颗粒相为主。不同地点采集的屋面径流中的PAHs质量浓度大部分表现出较明显的初期效应和时间变化,而在不同采样点之间则没有明显的空间差异。     

城市路面降雨径流污染特征及源解析的研究进展

城市路面径流是城市地表径流的重要组成部分,因其污染强度大、对地表水体的影响严重而被予以格外的关注。通过对国内外关于路面径流水质的研究进行总结发现：我国城市道路径流中COD、TP、TN和Pb的平均质量浓度分别为239.59、0.46、6.29和0.14 mg·L-1,超过了国家地表水环境质量Ⅴ类标准,TSS的质量浓度高达552.86 mg·L-1。因此,COD、TP、TN、Pb和TSS是我国路面径流的主要污染物。高速路径流污染物Pb、Cu和Zn的浓度明显高于普通道路,而普通道路径流污染物中COD和TSS要高于高速路。与其他国家相比,我国城市道路雨水径流污染物浓度偏高。多数研究表明：污染物的质量浓度与降雨量呈负相关关系,路面坡度增加了车辆与路面的摩擦力和燃料的消耗,进而导致路面径流污染物的浓度较高,路面清扫或许对污染物的浓度有不利的影响,主要由于道路清扫将路面中部分大颗粒破碎,释放出了细小的颗粒物（粒径〈43μm）并且不能将其清除的缘故。但是,降雨强度、干期、降雨历时和车流量对径流水质的影响存在一定的争议。通过对现有的研究总结发现：车流量≥30000的路面径流中COD、TSS、Pb和Cu的浓度是车流量〈30000的路面径流中的2.5、4.3、1.4和5.1倍;路面径流中的重金属主要来源于车辆的交通损耗,有机污染物来源于车辆的交通活动和路面材质,营养污染物来源于大气干湿沉降。今后应从以下几方面开展研究：将多环芳烃、大肠杆菌等水质指标列入研究计划;深入分析影响降雨径流水质的因素及各影响因子间的交互作用;运用同位素溯源技术识别道路径流污染物来源。     

Historical evidence of climatic variability and changes,and its effect on high-altitude regions: insights from Rara and Langtang,Nepal

ABSTRACT

Climatic variability and its effects have been experienced in the high-altitude regions of Nepal for some considerable time. Most of the studies on local people’s perception available so far in Nepal on climate include with respect to weather changes, and almost none have been verified with satellite imagery. This study thus attempts to combine meteorological and satellite imagery for comparing local people’s perception so that a more robust validation can be established. Both qualitative (transect walk, key informant interview, focus group discussion and institutional visit) and quantitative (meteorological and satellite image) data and techniques were employed. Local people from Rara and Langtang in Nepal shared their observations and perceptions on the changing climate for the last three decades and the effects on them and their local microclimate. Apart from temperature, rainfall and snowfall anomalies, locals observed changes in the water sources and increasing drought along with alteration in the phenology of tree and agricultural crops as well as vegetation range migration. Satellite image analysis also confirms a change in snow cover as notified by the local people. This study shows that local people’s knowledge could be considered as a complement to the observed scientific evidences of climate change science and their perceptions can be used reliably where scientific data are lacking. Finally, perceived climatic risks, current gaps and future opportunities are discussed and some recommendations are suggested.