Population dynamics,rural livelihoods and forest protection projects in Sub-Saharan Africa: experiences from Santa,Cameroon

The study examines mainstream efforts to rehabilitate and conserve forests in Cameroon, and concludes that technocratic blueprints will always flounder when they come face-to-face with the real world of complex human relations in poverty-stricken societies. These result from the failure to integrate concerns relating to rights, needs and priorities of rural communities, who are the local natural resource users. The paper argues that when rural livelihoods are affected negatively, the adjacent forest communities often respond in ways involving conflict, illegal exploitation of resources and apathy, which makes the realisation of conservation goals very remote. There is, therefore, need for a broader perspective that links environmental protection with human welfare. Consequently, the study advocates that Social Impact Assessment (SIA) be an integral part of such conservation projects if success is to be achieved.     

Disadvantages and future research directions in valuation of ecosystem services in China

We have reviewed the development, background and valuation history of ecosystem services in China and abroad, and highlight the importance of ecosystem services and the necessity of their valuation at various temporal and spatial scales. Through critical review of the literature, we have elucidated disadvantages in studies of ecosystem services in China, including the lack of a definite purpose for the valuation of ecosystem services, improper emphasis of valuation studies, stifled application of the contingent valuation method, weak power of research panels in the field, and the absence of the participation of government officials. In addition, we discuss some case studies from Western countries which tracked changes in the total economic value (TEV) of ecosystem services across different states of ecological disturbance and evaluated changes in the TEV under different management regimes. These studies may be useful in guiding future research in China. In essence, there are three major aspects involved in the valuation of ecosystem services: improving accuracy of valuation, association of results of valuation with policy and management decisions, and transfer of payments for ecosystem services. We suggest three priorities for future research in China: to develop an ecosystem service valuation model, to enhance the relevance of valuation studies to policy development, and to reward the protectors of ecosystem services.     

Non-Timber forest products: Conservation status and management priorities in the community managed forests of Andhra Pradesh,South India

Primary surveys were conducted in 20 villages and an equal number of community managed forests (CMFs) of two districts, Adilabad and Chittoor in the state of Andhra Pradesh in southern India. The interviews conducted with 216 respondents listed a total of 22 and 23 non-timber forest products (NTFP) from Adilabad and Chittoor districts, respectively, of which 15 species were common to both study districts. Eight of these NTFPs, including, Sterculia urens, Thysanolena maxima, Sapindus emerginatus, Dendrocalamus strictus, Pongamia pinnata, Schleichera oleosa, Azadirachta indica and Diospyros melenoxylon were collected for commercial purposes. The vegetation survey was conducted in a total of 240 sample plots in 20 CMFs, and found 15 NTFP species from Adilabad and 18 NTFP species from Chittoor. The density of NTFP trees in Adilabad was 52 trees/ha, as against an overall tree density of 278 trees/ha, while in Chittoor it was only 28 trees/ha as against an overall density of 110 trees/ha. The regeneration density of NTFP species was, however, higher in Chittoor. Some of the NTFP species, prioritized for conservation, included Sterculia urens, Tamarindus indica, Phyllanthus emblica, Strychnos nuxvomica, S. potatorum and Anogeissus latifolia.     

Gender roles and economics of exploitation,processing and marketing of bivalves and impacts on forest resources in the Sanaga Delta region of Douala-Edea Wildlife Reserve,Cameroon

Socio-economic surveys were carried out in the Malimba and Mouanko communities in the Sanaga delta region of the Douala-Edea Wildlife Reserve, Cameroon, on the exploitation, processing and marketing of bivalves, with emphasis on gender aspects and impacts on the surrounding forest resources. Sixty people from 16 villages were sampled using a structured questionnaire with field observations documented during the peak fishing period (November 2000–June 2001). Results indicated a strong gender differentiation in the activity, with males dominating bivalve harvesting and shell processing and women dominating the processing for meat. Monthly bivalve meat production of 32.9 tons (197.4 tons per year) generated revenues of 65.4 million FCFA (74.9 million per year). Monthly shell production was put at 1380 tons (8040 tons per year) generating a monthly revenue of 74 million FCFA (444 million per year). Problems faced during exploitation, processing and marketing stages include physical, health and socio-economic: use of very depreciable rudimentary tools, shell injuries, fire and hot water burns, insect pests; blindness, deafness; inadequate storage facilities, transport and remoteness of the area. Bivalve processing activities using wood contributed to a total annual harvest of 50 986 m³ from the surrounding forest. Sustainable conservation measures geared towards poverty alleviation are proposed.     

Volume and financial value of species traded in the medicinal plant markets of Gauteng,South Africa

The demand for traditional medicinal plants and products in South Africa has created an extensive cross-border industry involving thousands of harvesters and traders. The market values of individual taxa vary considerably. Pricing structures fluctuate between markets and over time as the cost of harvesting species varies depending on a gatherer's access to the resources and the proximity of markets to the harvesting sites. This paper estimates trade values, describes the prices paid for 22 plant resources, investigates pricing structures relative to the mass/volume sold and the factors that influence the market price for plants. There is an inverse and disproportionate relationship between the price per kilogram (R/kg) and mass of the product sold. The smaller the quantity sold, the higher the R/kg sale values are relative to sales of larger quantities. This relationship is evident in different plant part types (e.g. bark and bulbs), species and markets (shops and street markets). Given the high mass sold relative to the price, bulbs, like bark, have the lowest R/kg values compared to other products like roots, fruits and leaves. The prices paid for heavier/denser species is thus disproportionate to the mass sold. If the relative values are used as an indicator of plant vulnerability (assuming high values indicate greater vulnerability), then bias is created in favour of 'lighter' and less dense plant parts typically sold in small quantities because of the nature of the plant part and the manner in which it is marketed and required by customers.     

Policy challenges and approaches for the conservation of mangrove forests in Southeast Asia

Many drivers of mangrove forest loss operate over large scales and are most effectively addressed by policy interventions. However, conflicting or unclear policy objectives exist at multiple tiers of government, resulting in contradictory management decisions. To address this, we considered four approaches that are being used increasingly or could be deployed in Southeast Asia to ensure sustainable livelihoods and biodiversity conservation. First, a stronger incorporation of mangroves into marine protected areas (that currently focus largely on reefs and fisheries) could resolve some policy conflicts and ensure that mangroves do not fall through a policy gap. Second, examples of community and government comanagement exist, but achieving comanagement at scale will be important in reconciling stakeholders and addressing conflicting policy objectives. Third, private‐sector initiatives could protect mangroves through existing and novel mechanisms in degraded areas and areas under future threat. Finally, payments for ecosystem services (PES) hold great promise for mangrove conservation, with carbon PES schemes (known as blue carbon) attracting attention. Although barriers remain to the implementation of PES, the potential to implement them at multiple scales exists. Closing the gap between mangrove conservation policies and action is crucial to the improved protection and management of this imperiled coastal ecosystem and to the livelihoods that depend on them.     

Landscapes of mangrove forests and littoral dynamics in the South Viêt-Nam

French colonization (1860–1945), Indochina (1945–1954) and Viêt-Nam’s Wars (1961–1975) illustrate during nearly one century, the use of the littoral at “strategic” ends (commercial and military). The discovery of the coasts of Cochinchina allowed the conquest of new grounds and the progressive development of the primarily alluvial plains. The mangrove forests in the South Viêt-Nam are the witnesses of a destruction then of a cicatrization of the landscapes. A progressive dynamics and a reconquest of formerly bombarded lands, intensely defoliated, set up themselves. We can speak about “rebirth” because it is possible to see, rebuild this dynamics as from one moment “zero” (war) and to compare with the evolution of the current vegetable formations, using Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems (GIS). These devasted landscapes were transformed into a success, by positive effect of the rehabilitation of the coasts. Finally, the possible reconquest of the littoral by the plants is due to the great capacity of nature to be regenerated.     

Perceptions of incentives for participation: insights from joint forest management in India

The participatory approach in management of forests is now well established in forest policies of many developing countries. Incentives for different groups to participate have been argued by many to be desirable characteristics to promote participation. A key challenge for government and donor agencies is to develop better understanding of the incentives for different groups to be able to achieve and sustain their participation. Based on a case study of a joint forest management (JFM) programme in the northern state of Haryana in India, this paper highlights the relevance of understanding people's perception of the incentives. It specifically examines three hypotheses related to perceptions of villagers about incentives offered under the JFM programme and relates them to their participation in joint management. It concludes that a better understanding is likely to help in improving project implementation at the local level and the design of participatory forest management programmes more generally.     

Diel and tidal cycles regulate larval dynamics in salt marshes and mangrove forests

Variation in the release and recruitment of larvae of estuarine invertebrates affects the distribution and abundance of adults, as well as trophic interactions in both the plankton and the benthos. Larval release and supply are often timed to environmental cycles such as the diel and tidal cycles. Here, we determined using plankton tows whether the abundance of larvae spanning salt marsh and mangrove habitats across the intertidal landscape varied with diel and tidal cycles. Using three different sampling designs across two sites and within each of two estuaries over a 12-month period, we covered a range of spatial and temporal scales. This allowed us to test the general prediction that densities of meroplankton in the water column would be greater during nocturnal ebb tides than during other phases of the diel or tidal cycle. As predicted, nocturnal ebb tides yielded the highest densities of meroplanktonic larvae and were dominated by first-stage crab zoeae and this finding was most pronounced in the salt marsh. Throughout the course of the year, greater numbers of meroplankters consistently occurred during the ebb tide compared with the flood tide. The densities of other taxa (e.g. gastropods and polychaetes) showed no clear trends with diel or tidal cycles. This study highlights the effects of these pervasive physical cycles on the timing of larval release and supply in the salt marsh–mangrove complex, and emphasises their contribution to the trophic interactions and the dynamics of benthic populations within estuaries.     

Soil particle-size composition and coastal erosion and accretion study in Soc Trang mangrove forests

Coastal erosion results in loss of land, which impacts the economy, coastal residents and settlement plans, especially in the context of rising sea levels caused by climate change. Studying soil particle-size fractions in mangrove forests will help provide a better understanding of the relationship between soil proportions and coastal processes as well as the role of mangrove forests to support coastal planning and management. Soil samples were collected at 26 sampling plots at depths of 10 cm and 40 cm in the Cu Lao Dung (CLD), Long Phu (LP) and Vinh Chau (VC) mangrove forests in Viet Nam’s Soc Trang Province. The soil proportions based on six different particle-sizes (<0.074 mm, 0.074–0.1 mm, 0.1–0.25 mm, 0.25–0.5 mm, 0.5–1.0 mm, and >1.0 mm) were measured using a dry sieving method. Analysis showed that soil particle-sizes ranging between 0.074 and 0.5 mm made up 75–95 % of the soil sample weight at both depths. The high standard deviation values of soil proportions of each given particle-size among sampling plots indicated the soil proportions by particle-size varied widely across the sampling plots. Cluster analysis found similar pattern of soil particle-size proportions for samples collected in CLD and VC, and different pattern of soil particle-size proportions in samples collected at LP, which is more impacted by the Mekong River flow and has a thin mangrove forest belt.?Non-metric dimension scaling (NMDS) analysis showed that sampling plots across the landward sites of the three mangrove forest areas were distributed in the nearby locations (Stress?=?0.11). This indicated that soil proportions of particle-sizes of samples collected from areas of the natural forest composed of different species were more similar. Such similarities were not found, however, in samples collected from middle and seaward plots dominated by single-species plantations.     

An integrated approach to mangrove dynamics and management

The main objective of the MADAM project (Mangrove Dynamics and Management) is to generate the scientific basis enabling the sustainable stewardship of the resources of the Caeté mangrove estuary in Northeast Brazil in the sense of integrated coastal (zone) management. To achieve this, it is necessary to acquire in-depth knowledge of natural processes as well as of the relevant institutional, cultural, economic, social and political dynamics. Causal linkages within the ecosystem, as well as between ecosystem, economy and society, are analysed and explained via dynamic and trophic modelling. Scenario construction is intended to forecast the effects of acute or chronic interference on utilized resources, and to answer wider, management-related questions (e.g. restoration of destroyed areas, utilization potential for aquaculture). This paper describes the project strategy as developed and modified in the context of research results from the initial 2-yr project phase. It is argued that a continuous discussion process is essential to assess the validity of the strategies formulated at the beginning of a medium-time project, particularly if the project is of interdisciplinary nature.     

The significance of social capital in local forest management in Laos: Overcoming latent conflict between local people and local forestry officials

Forest policies that devolve forest-use rights to local people have undergone development over the past few years in Laos. As collaboration between local people and forestry officials is seen as indispensable to effective and sustainable local forest management, the objective of this study is to clarify the issues pertinent to the resolution of latent conflict between these two stakeholders. The issues are examined by presenting two case studies in terms of forest management as perceived by local people and forestry officials; the first in a rich forest area and the second in a degraded forest. Issues relating to land and borders and social capital are identified as the most important in the degraded forest area, while social capital is a very important issue in the rich forest area. Our studies show that the problems of land and border issues in the degraded forest area were caused by an inappropriate resettlement policy. This can be interpreted as the mismanagement of social capital, and for effective local forest management it is very important to overcome problems of this nature. The effective use of social capital has so far been overlooked, however, in the establishment of collaborative forest governance at the local level.     

鼎湖山主要森林类型土壤pH值动态变化

鼎湖山主要森林类型土壤pH值都较低,但从1994年以来土壤酸化都得到了控制,pH值比较稳定。针叶林土壤pH值比混交林高,季风常绿阔叶林pH值最低。     

Difference in the net value of ecological services between natural and artificial forests in China

Land degradation is a global problem that seriously threatens human society. However, in China and elsewhere, ecological restoration still largely relies on a traditional approach that focuses only on ecological factors and ignores socioeconomic factors. To improve the effectiveness of ecological restoration and maximize its economic and ecological benefits, a more efficient approach is needed that provides support for policy development and land management and thereby promotes environmental conservation. We devised a framework for assessing the value of ecosystem services that remain after subtracting costs, such as the opportunity costs, costs of forest protection, and costs for the people who are affected by the program; that is, the net value of ecosystem services (NVES). To understand the difference between the value of a resource and the net value of the ecosystem service it provides, we used data on VES, timber sales, and afforestation costs from China's massive national afforestation programs to calculate the net value of forest ecosystem services in China. Accounting for the abovementioned costs revealed an NVES of ¥6.1 × 10¹² for forests in 2014, which was 35.9% less than the value calculated without accounting for costs. As a result, the NVES associated with afforestation was 55.9% less than the NVES of natural forests. In some regions, NVES was negative because of the huge costs of human-made plantations, high evapotranspiration rates (thus, high water opportunity costs), and low forest survival rates. To maximize the ecological benefits of conservation, it is necessary to account for as many costs as possible so that management decisions can be based on NVES, thereby helping managers choose projects that maximize both economic and ecological benefits.     

The development of secondary industries through the sustainable utilisation of reeds and forest timber in the Tembe Elephant Park,Maputaland, South Africa

The harvesting of Phragmites australis reeds in the Tembe Elephant Park has to be managed pro-actively. Solutions to potential problems should be sought before they arise. This paper offers a potential solution to the problem of instating a winter-only reed harvest in the Muzi Swamp. The potential for manufacturing finished products such as prefabricated huts from sustainably harvested reeds and forest timber is examined and a cost estimate is presented. A prefabricated reed hut is three-times cheaper than a similarly-sized house made of bricks and cement. The manufacturing of finished products from the harvested material will add secondary value to the resource and also offer an alternative employment to harvesting reeds in the summer. The higher prices obtained for a processed article will also, hopefully, reduce the demand for the resource in its raw form, thereby increasing the perceived value of the resource and reducing wastage from raw materials that are not sold.     

Assessment of community-based initiatives in sustainable management of Indian dry deciduous forests

SUMMARY

This work is devoted to analyzing the pros and cons of the proposed San Ignacio Lagoon (SIL) salt production project in Baja California Sur, México. The analysis of the project was done taking into account the technical data of the main potential effects of the SIL project, and by comparing the SIL proposed actions with the data of Ojo de Liebre Lagoon, where an almost identical salt production project has been operating for more than 44 years. The analysis was done from the following perspectives: biodiversity, biosphere reserve management, and socioeconomic development. The resulting analysis of the pros and cons of the SIL salt production project addresses key aspects of sustainable development in Third World nations. The resulting analysis indicates that the SIL salt production project is compatible with the biodiversity conservation of the zone. The SIL salt production project seems to be one of the best options to attain the sustainable use of natural resources of the most arid and isolated zone of all México.     

Ecological properties of soil water and effects on forest vegetation in the Loess Plateau

In the Loess Plateau of China, soil water has three ecological properties: high infiltration capacity, high storage capacity and availability to deep plant roots. Soil desiccation is the most serious problem for forest vegetation in the Loess Plateau. Arid soils are the result of intensified soil desiccation caused by disturbances in plant succession, which constitute the ecological foundation of soil water. The negative effects of the arid soil layer on surface water infiltration for recharging underground water are discussed in terms of ecological hydrology. The arid soil layer disrupts the link between surface water and underground water and prevents vertical precipitation infiltration from supplementing underground water. Forest vegetation has a significant runoff-retaining efficiency that reduces total runoff from forest areas leading to low surface and ground runoff which affect the water cycle on a watershed scale.     

Adaptive resource management and the value of information

The value of information is a general and broadly applicable concept that has been used for several decades to aid in making decisions in the face of uncertainty. Yet there are relatively few examples of its use in ecology and natural resources management, and almost none that are framed in terms of the future impacts of management decisions. In this paper we discuss the value of information in a context of adaptive management, in which actions are taken sequentially over a timeframe and both future resource conditions and residual uncertainties about resource responses are taken into account. Our objective is to derive the value of reducing or eliminating uncertainty in adaptive decision making. We describe several measures of the value of information, with each based on management objectives that are appropriate for adaptive management. We highlight some mathematical properties of these measures, discuss their geometries, and illustrate them with an example in natural resources management. Accounting for the value of information can help to inform decisions about whether and how much to monitor resource conditions through time.     

Achieving sustainable rural development in Southern China: the contribution of bamboo forestry

Bamboo forests, due to their special characteristics and ecological functions, play an important role in sustainable forest management and rural development in China. Over the past two decades, China has successfully established millions of hectares of bamboo forest, which has restored fragile ecosystems, provided benefits to local communities, alleviated rural poverty and eased timber shortages. However, there is potential for further improvements to the bamboo forest estate. This paper analyses the current state of bamboo forest resources and management, and the roles of the bamboo forest industry in social development, economic growth and ecosystem protection in China. We examine the main issues related to governance systems, local economic development and traditional management practices. Finally, we suggest some directions for future development.