Traditional agriculture in transition: examining the impacts of agricultural modernization on smallholder farming in Ghana under the new Green Revolution

Following the renewed effort at achieving a new green revolution for Africa, emphasis has been placed on modernizing smallholder agriculture through the deployment of improved inputs especially mechanized technologies. In Ghana, the government has in the last decade emphasized the provision of subsidized mechanized ploughing services to farmers alongside a rapidly growing private sector tractor service market. While mechanized technology adoption rates have increased rapidly, the deployment of these technologies has been without critical analysis of the impacts on production patterns and local agrarian systems. This paper examines the distributional impacts of agriculture mechanization on cropping patterns and farm sizes of smallholder farmers in northern Ghana using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques, and semi-structured interviews with smallholder farmers (n=60). Specifically, comparative analysis of the field sizes and cropping patterns of participant farmers prior to and after the adoption of mechanized technologies was conducted. In-depth interviews were used to contextualize the experiences of smallholder farmers toward understanding how mechanization may be impacting traditional agriculture. Our findings reveal a mechanization paradox in which farm sizes are expanding, while cropping patterns are shifting away from traditional staple crops (pearl millet and sorghum bicolor) to market-oriented crops (maize, rice and groundnuts). This transition we argue, has adverse implications on the cultural dimension of food security, the organization of social life, and climate change adaptation. We recommend a retooling of the current agricultural policy focus to ensure context sensitivity for a more robust battle against food insecurity.     

Assessing environmental exposure and health impacts of gold mining in Ghana

Understanding the extent to which people are being exposed to environmental contaminants helps to identify those populations which may be disproportionately exposed to the contaminants of potential public health concern. This study represents the first report of a comparison of heavy metal arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), platinum (Pt), zinc (Zn), and manganese (Mn) concentrations in the blood of residents of mining and non-mining communities in Ghana. Blood sampling, health records, and interviews were used in this study to establish the links between the levels of contaminants and health effects in humans within a mining and non-mining community in Ghana. Results of this study show that mean concentration of As in blood in Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality/Prestea-Huni Valley District (TNMA/PHVD) (mining communities) and Cape Coast Metropolis (CCMA) (non-mining community) was 18- and 2-fold higher, respectively, than the WHO guideline value of 0.002?mg?L^?1. The mean concentrations of As, Cd, Pb, Hg, and Mn were elevated up to 20-fold higher in the blood of resident adults and children in TNMA/PHVD than in CCMA. The risk of acute respiratory infections in the exposed populations of TNMA and PHVD were approximately 41- and 12-fold greater than the unexposed group. The risk of diabetes mellitus in the exposed populations of TNMA and PHVD were also approximately 20- and 4-fold higher than the unexposed group. In TNMA and PHVD, 40 blood donors were suffering from hyperkeratosis or pigmentation unlike their CCMA counterparts. Data suggest a potential association between mining activities and the levels of these heavy metals. However, the proportion of anthropogenic contribution to the levels of these metals in the blood remains uncertain. This uncertainty seems to be the umbrella under which both government and mining companies continue to hide, leading to inaction.     

Community participation in the management of forest reserves in the Northern Region of Ghana

The 1994 forest and wildlife policy of Ghana provides the basis for community participation in forest management through participatory forest management. Even though forest reserves in the Northern Region are said to be managed collaboratively, fringe communities are supposedly involved only in maintenance activities of the reserve boundaries and seedling planting in plantation programmes. The forest reserves are said to be threatened by illegal activities from the fringe communities. This study therefore examined the nature of community participation in the management of forest reserves.

It is a mixed method research in which structured interview schedule, in-depth interview and focus group discussion guides were used for data collection. Respondents comprised community members, forestry staff and NGOs. Communities’ participation was found to be passive and tokenistic and limited to boundary cleaning and providing labour on plantations. There is no formal collaboration between communities and Forest Services Division. Prospects to communities’ participation lie in the continuous flow of benefits and their active involvement in management decisions. Active involvement of communities in all decision-making processes, capacity building of communities and forestry staff, incentive schemes and awareness creation are recommended for promoting community participation in managing forest reserves in Northern Region.     

The production of lumber using chainsaws in Guyana

SUMMARY

The structure, conduct and performance, and the environmental impacts of the chainsaw lumber production sector in Guyana are investigated. Chainsaws are a highly mobile lumber technology that is used to rip or produce lumber within the forest. Chainsaw lumbering operations have become the dominant lumber producer for the domestic market. Production costs are only 53% of wholesale lumber prices. On a ms basis, chainsaw operations' net profit is 80% of the gross price paid for logs at sawmills and more than twice the profit of firms engaged in the harvesting and transportation of logs to sawmills. Sawmills recognize this cost advantage and are increasingly using chainsaws in the production of lumber.

The handling and transportation of chainsawn lumber within the forest is environmentally less damaging than log production. The log recovery rate is 10–15% for chainsaw operations, as compared to the sawmill average of 40–45%. Log residue from chainsaw operations is left within the forest which promotes faster forest regrowth, while that at sawmills is wasted. Chainsaw operations harvest immature trees, engage in the harvesting of selective species, over-harvest trees per unit area of land, and engage in frequent reentry of the forest. Because of these practices, the chainsaw lumber sector is not environmentally sustainable and will require regulation. Policies that follow a non-market solution will be required in regulation.     

A novel living agricultural concept in urban communities: Family Business Garden

During the process of urbanization, people are subject to the indiscriminate use of resources due to competition. The present trend in global population growth predicts that the situation will be aggravated as many people prefer living in towns and cities to resource-poor rural areas. In consequence, limited space, high percentage of ageing population, urban poverty, environmental pollution, changes in urban lifestyles and varied consumption patterns have to be dealt with in sustainable development strategies. In this context, urban agriculture can play a vital role by visualizing the urban homestead as a potentially viable production unit of agriculture. In order to live with limited urban infrastructure facilities, environmental conditions and socio-economic situations, the concept of the Family Business Garden justifies the necessity of its presence through the experience in the Western Province of Sri Lanka. Having a proper mix of environmental and commercial agricultural concerns, the concept paves the way not only to address family food requirements but also to produce for markets under liberalized economies by promoting agro-entrepreneurship and social capital development attempts in urban communities.     

深圳市滨海湿地两个观光农业系统的能值整合研究

应用能值研究方法对深圳市海上田园旅游区的芦花湖和农家小院两个观光农业系统进行了生态经济分析.从系统和子系统两个层面,进行了能值产出、环境负载、可持续发展能力的评价与比较;与珠三角另一个观光农业系统(百万葵园)、两个基塘农业系统(菜-鱼、菜-猪-鱼)和一个巴西基塘系统(谷-猪-鱼)进行了横向比较.从货币收益的角度看,农家小院系统的费用使用效率、商品生产获利能力要优于芦花湖系统.但能值整合分析却显示出不一样的结果:两系统内旅游业子系统的能值交换率较高,而二者的农牧业子系统及农家小院系统的水产业子系统的能值交换率均较低,其生产效率仍有待提高.芦花湖系统的环境负载率为7.31,能值可持续发展指标为0.255,分别是农家小院的0.25倍和2.26倍,因而更具长远发展优势.与传统农业相比,观光农业的能值交换率和环境负载率整体偏高,表明其在经济效益创造上优于传统农业,但在自然资源利用和环境压力,以及可持续发展能力等方面与传统农业尚存在差距,在今后的发展中需借鉴传统农业的经验并加以改善,防止观光农业发展中绿色产业褐色化现象的发生.     

Institutional deficiencies and capacity building constraints: the dilemma for environmentally sustainable development in Africa

SUMMARY

The authors question Africa's ability to achieve sustainable development in view of the erosion of its institution building capacity, a problem compounded by the alarming rate of Africa's continuing marginalisation in the world economy. The situation has been provoked by inappropriate domestic policies which have not only compromised Africa's competitiveness, but also made it particularly vulnerable given the increasing globalisation of markets and factors of production. The benefits associated with effective global economic participation transcend direct financial gains and include technology transfers, technical and managerial skills transfers, and other skills transfers associated with the ‘learning and doing’ process. These benefits are instrumental in the development of the economic, administrative, legislative and social institutions that prescribe the organisational and managerial structure of an economy and define its capacity for sustainable growth. In Africa, the absence of such structures has undermined development efforts and created large impoverished populations. But poverty in living standards is not only prevalent, there is also the acute poverty in knowledge and skills which is so damaging to institution building capacity. The socio-economic impact is manifest in dilapidated infrastructure, decaying institutions, the exodus of the professional and managerial cadre, and the almost total disintegration of society. It is within this context that Africa's ability to evolve and effectively manage sustainable development policies is questioned. The study concludes that the continent's capacity to initiate sound environmental and sustainable development policies depends crucially on its ability to develop appropriate and functional institutions.     

科学施肥与农业生产可持续发展

化肥的施用，实现了农业的增产，一百多年来为解决中国人民的温饱问题做出了重大贡献。肥料仍然是粮食安全的重要保障。但不合理施用化肥造成环境污染和食品安全问题，使人们产生了对化肥的错误认识。文章认为必须树立起科学施肥的观念，努力提高化肥利用率，形成有机、无机肥料合理配合使用的格局，促进农业生产可持续发展。此外，还认为应加强肥料市场管理，使之有法可依，并能迎接入世的挑战。     

Multicriteria analysis applied to the sustainable agriculture problem

SUMMARY

The aim of this paper is to present an operational approach to compare the relative sustainability of existing farming systems. Sustainability rests on the assumption that an equilibrium must exist among three domains: social, economic and ecological. If we are to look for a solution to the problem, we must face a multi-dimensional approach. We propose that multicriteria analysis, a multi-dimensional method, is an appropriate methodology to study the issue. As sustainability cannot be measured directly, the way out is to use indicators. We have performed a thorough analysis of four farming systems existing in Guaíra, SP, Brazil to validate the methodology. Thirty indicators of sustainability (ten ecological, ten social, and ten economic) were defined and used to perform the analysis. The results of the multicriteria analysis proved useful because of its capability of reducing the dimensionality of the problem. From the three dimensions of sustainability, a final score was derived that can easily compare the relative sustainability of each farming system.     

Indicators of sustainability as a tool in agricultural development: partitioning scientific and participatory processes

SUMMARY

Sustainable indicators have become popular tools by which policymakers can assess progress towards a more sustainable agriculture. Varying approaches to defining sustainability lead to disagreement about the value of indicators and yet some form of measurement is required so that society can judge the effects of policy. Environmental and social problems and their causes span national boundaries. An international framework for assessing agricultural activities, their effects and the pressures that drive those activities is therefore required. However, a guiding principle of the UN Agenda for Sustainable Development is that global problems require local action. Thus, indicators must provide information for policymakers as well as guidance for farmers and other practitioners. Many indicator programmes currently proposed do not provide this level of guidance as no evaluation as to what level of activity is sustainable has been agreed. A model is presented, to show how scientific and political or participatory approaches may be combined to meet the multiple objectives of involving people, maintaining scientific integrity and providing guidance for policymakers and practitioners alike.     

Agricultural production and bird conservation in complex landscapes of the dry Chaco

The South American dry Chaco is a mosaic of woody vegetation and grasslands with high deforestation rates in recent decades. Considering forests and grasslands as the main natural habitats, we assessed the trade-offs between bird populations and agricultural production to compare the potential consequences of different land use strategies (‘sharing’, ‘sparing’, and intermediate) for populations of bird species sensitive to agriculture, while attaining a regional production target. We evaluated how populations responded to scenarios with different proportions of forest and grasslands, considering three reference states (100% forest, 80:20% and 50:50% forest and grasslands, respectively); and scenarios capable of meeting three after-farming scenarios, with land destined to reach a regional production target with three variations of forest:grasslands within spared land. We fitted curves to relate bird abundance to agricultural yield along a gradient of meat production intensity; and we classified bird species as ‘losers’ (if their populations were lower than the baseline population in the reference state, at any level of production) and ‘winners’ (if their current populations were higher than the baseline population). At the ‘current’ (c. 2010) level of regional agricultural production, we found a similar number of loser species maximized by land-sparing and land-sharing strategies; while intermediate strategies were the least favourable to balance production and bird populations. Under the most probable scenarios of increases in regional meat production, most loser bird species populations were maximized by a land-sparing strategy, suggesting that if meat production targets are going to increase in the region, this can be more efficiently achieved by combining well-protected forests and grasslands, and high-yielding mechanized agriculture (e.g. soybean). Our results highlight the importance of assessing all the important natural habitats (e.g. forests and grasslands) of a region to explore conservation strategies at a regional scale.     

Perceived importance of sustainability dimensions in the Portuguese metal industry

The growing interest of stakeholders regarding the contribution of organizations to Sustainable Development is influencing organizational behavior and strategic planning. The purpose of the present paper is to analyze the perception of the importance of organizational sustainability dimensions in a relevant economic sector: the metal industry. Survey data was collected from a sample of 211 Portuguese industries, and non-parametric statistical tests were used to validate five research hypotheses regarding the importance of the economic, environmental, social and cultural dimensions of sustainability. The results obtained demonstrate awareness of the sampled industries regarding all sustainability dimensions, recognizing that their importance has been increasing over the years, and prospecting that this importance will continue to increase in the future. The industries in this sample revealed different degrees of perceived importance for the different sustainability dimensions: the highest importance was given to the economic dimension, and culture was considered the least important sustainability dimension. However, the perception of the respondents is that these differences will be less relevant in the future. The results also show that companies with certified management systems reveal a higher perceived importance regarding sustainability dimensions. Also, industries with higher values of annual turnover, number of employees and export sales tend to give higher degrees of importance to sustainability dimensions. Considering the economic, environmental and social impacts of metal industries at an international level, the awareness of this industrial sector regarding the importance of sustainability is a relevant step to the commitment towards Sustainable Development.     

A simulation model to explore the relative value of stock enhancement versus harvest regulations for fishery sustainability

Harvest restrictions and stock enhancement are commonly proposed management responses for sustaining degraded fisheries, but comparisons of their relative effectiveness have seldom been considered prior to making policy choices. We built a population model that incorporated both size-dependent harvest restrictions and stock enhancement contributions to explore trade-offs between minimum length limits and stock enhancement for improving population sustainability and fishery metrics (e.g., catch). We used a Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii population as a test case, and the model incorporated density-dependent recruitment processes for both hatchery and wild fish. We estimated the spawning potential ratio (SPR) and fishery metrics (e.g., angler catch) across a range of minimum length limits and stocking rates. Model estimates showed that increased minimum length limits were much more effective than stock enhancement for increasing SPR and angler catches in exploited populations, but length limits resulted in reduced harvest. Stocking was predicted to significantly increase total recruitment, population sustainability, and fishery metrics only in systems where natural reproduction had been greatly reduced via habitat loss, fishing mortality was high, or both. If angler fishing effort increased with increased fish abundance from stocking efforts, fishing mortality was predicted to increase and reduce the benefits realized from stocking. The model also indicated that benefits from stock enhancement would be reduced if reproductive efficiency of hatchery-origin fish was compromised. The simulations indicated that stock enhancement was a less effective method to improve fishery sustainability than measures designed to reduce fishing mortality (e.g., length limits).     

A holistic approach to the development of sustainable agriculture: application of the ecosystem health model

Serious resource depletion has made sustainable agriculture an important and pressing issue for scientists, policy makers, and stakeholders worldwide, particularly in developing countries. Researchers have focused on methods to assess agriculture correctly, and to introduce sound solutions for sustainability, but have reached no agreement. In this paper, we introduce the theoretical framework of the agro-ecosystem health model, a new holistic approach, and apply it at a regional scale using four aspects (4S): sound structure, stable function, safe service, and sustainable development. We examine how 12 indicators of an agro-ecosystem health assessment (AHA) were selected using three dimensions based on this theoretical framework. In an AHA, we used an amoeba approach to examine a high-yield agro-ecosystem in Huantai County, Shandong Province, China. The results indicate that this model of ecosystem health can reflect the complex ecological, economic, and human conditions of an agro-ecosystem and evaluate these conditions using perspectives pertinent to system structure, function, and responses (services).     

Institutional responses to development pressures: Resilience of social-ecological systems in Himachal Pradesh,India

In the Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh, India, economic and urban growth, and diversification have increased pressure on forests and forest-based social-ecological systems. As in many Himalayan regions, livelihood sustainability is linked to forest resources, products and services. Recent development in the region, to which these systems may be vulnerable, brings into question environmental and livelihood sustainability. This paper examines the resilience of integrated systems of people and nature, or social-ecological systems, in the face of development pressures by evaluating a number of local and state-level institutional responses. Resilience, which describes the ability of the social-ecological systems to adapt to change by buffering shocks, improving self-organization and increasing capacity for learning, is an essential quality for sustainable development. Institutional responses which positively contribute to resilience and sustainability include the work of mahila mandals in forest management, adoption of Joint Forest Management (JFM) policies and practices, upholding rules, strengthening local institutions, establishing firewood depots and adopting alternative energy sources. Institutional failures brought about by the lack of rule enforcement and corruption erode resilience. The analysis of institutional responses helps to identify areas where capacity exists and areas in which capacity building is needed to produce resilient social-ecological systems and therefore, sustainable development.     

Using the paired comparison methodology to assess environmental values in the coastal zone of Ghana

Like many developing countries, Ghana is grappling with environmental issues, such as the degradation of coastal natural resources. In an attempt to ameliorate the current state of affairs, broad institutional arrangements and policy interventions have been put in place. However coastal natural resources are still being overexploited and the effects of this are felt more strongly by certain groups (such as women and the rural poor) than others. This has led to the argument pointing to an urgent need to include local resource users as active participants in environmental decision making and to incorporate their environmental values in the management of coastal natural resources. Using empirical data from women in two Ghanaian coastal communities, this paper highlights the importance of exploring how the environmental attitudes and values of women might be considered in the management of local coastal natural resources. It assesses effectiveness of the paired comparison methodology in this respects and how this method can be also used to prioritise their environmental concerns. The results show that in both areas respondents place the greatest importance on the coastal natural resources as sources of wealth creation and of food, values which are often described as being “anthropocentric”. The paper thus argues that having discovered that the ecological value placed on natural resources is low, initiatives that could win the support of people would be those that link the livelihood and wellbeing to coastal NRM. It emphasizes the fact that conservation cannot exist outside of people and social systems; nor will it succeed unless they are linked to the welfare of resource users.     

Ecology-based tourism potential of Altindere Valley (Trabzon-Turkey) in regards to the natural,historical and cultural factors

The study was carried out in the Altindere Valley, which is an area appropriate for tourism activities with natural, historical and cultural values through all four seasons, with Yazlik Village in the centre and including the surrounding sites Cosandere village, Altindere village, hamlets (The Hamlets) and plateau areas. In this study, the goal is to set forth the ecological-based tourism potential in line with the concepts of intactness; conservation-use balance; and sustainability at natural, historical and cultural sites through a determined planning approach. In this respect, assessments have been made on the study area on the basis of the ‘Ecological Evaluation Method’, which has been developed for urban areas. Through the determination of quotients, classification and quantitative assessment of unweighted values were found for natural and cultural elements that show percentage (%) dispersion at the area (slope, exposition, soil, forest, vegetation, existing areas use, historical and cultural structure). ‘Weighted values’ were calculated by multiplying the determined factor weights and the unweighted inside grid values of the factors. With the results of grid values obtained, 10.58% Very Good, 48.82% Good, 19.7% Average, 8.82% Weak, and 12.05% Very Weak, ‘Ecological Based Tourism Potential Areas According to Natural, Historical and Cultural Factors’ have been identified.     

Transitions to sustainability in small islands: combining foresight scenarios with multi-criteria analysis to develop viable sustainability strategies in an EOR

Islands face similar challenges for sustainability as continental areas, but their geographic situation conditions their options for development. However, thanks to their clear geographic boundaries, they are an opportunity to think about sustainability in an integrated way. The objective of the study was to explore from a local (island) and regional (archipelago) perspective strategies for sustainability. ‘Participative foresight scenario mapping’ (PFSM) methodology was used to explore the sustainable future of a small island (Flores Island, Azores, Portugal). The need to acknowledge the limit to growth is a key finding of this article. But the research also allowed us to analyse in depth specific strategies that can be applied to different sectors of activity, the most important being to: improve the quality of local products, diversify the economy and increase self-sufficiency. PFSM succeeded in identifying key themes and facilitating debate around these subjects. These findings can inform sustainable development in other islands or territories sharing similar geographic characteristics.     

A framework based on fuzzy AHP-TOPSIS for prioritizing solutions to overcome the barriers in the implementation of ecodesign practices in SMEs

Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) are under pressure to adopt sustainable practices in their business due to increasing environmental challenges. This study aims to identify and prioritize the solutions to overcome the barriers in the implementation of ecodesign practices in SMEs. This study helps the companies to develop and implement the strategies on priority using higher ranked solutions. In this study, a framework is proposed that is based on fuzzy analytical hierarchy process and fuzzy technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution to rank the solutions that overcome the barriers in ecodesign implementation in SMEs. The proposed framework is illustrated by conducting a case study of an Indian ring and piston manufacturing company. This framework provides an effective support in the decision-making of the company for producing eco-friendly products through the implementation of ecodesign practices. Results of this study emphasize that training of designers to use different ecodesign tools is an essential practice for SMEs.     

生态农业产业链应对农产品贸易绿色壁垒的策略与途径

加入WTO以来，我国农产品不断受到“绿色壁垒”的困扰，农产品出口和农业综合开发均受到较大影响。文章从牛态农业建设的角度分析了绿色贸易壁垒对我国农产品出口贸易的影响，提出我国农产品冲破绿色贸易壁垒的几点建议，认为只有构筑现代生态农业产业链，在良性循环为基础的生态农业模式基础上，适应现代农业规模化、专业化、产业化、商品化的发展趋势，才能突破“绿色贸易壁垒”，拓展世界农产品绿色市场。可以在大型或多样化的企业形成良性循环的生态农业产业链，也可以由不同企业间或公司＋农户联合形成生态农业产业链，并结合运用传统农业精华和现代科技手段，提高农业标准化水平，规避绿色壁垒，确保农业良好综合效益的实现。