Quantitative Detection and Characterization of Human Adenoviruses in the Buffalo River in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

Buffalo River is an important water resource in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Over a 1-year period (August 2010?CJuly 2011), we assessed the prevalence of human adenoviruses (HAdVs) at a total of 6 sites on the river and three dams along its course. HAdVs were detected by real-time quantitative PCR in about 35?% of the samples with concentrations ranging from 1.2?×?10¹ genome copies (GC)/l to 4.71?×?10³ GC/l. HAdVs were detected at 5 of the 6 sampling sites with the detection rate ranging from 8.3?% at Rooikrantz Dam to 92?% at Parkside. The HAdV concentrations across the sampling sites were as follows: Parkside (3.25?×?10²?C4.71?×?10³?GC/); King William??s Town (1.02?×?10²?C4.56?×?10³?GC/l); and Eluxolzweni (1.17?×?10²?C3.97?×?10² GC/l). Significantly (P?<?0.05) higher concentrations were detected at the non-dam sites compared to the dam sites. A very low mean concentration of 1.86?×?10¹ HAdV GC/l was observed at Bridle Drift Dam. While HAdVs were detected only once at Rooikrantz Dam (1.74?×?10¹?GC/l), no HAdV was detected at Maden Dam. Epidemiologically important serotypes, Ad40/41, constituted 83.3?%, while Ad21 made up 16.7?% of the all HAdVs detected and were characterized by qualitative PCR. The Buffalo River presents a public health risk heightened by the presence of Ad 40/41 and Ad21. Our results make imperative the need for assessing water sources for viral contamination in the interest of public health. This work is a significant contribution to the molecular epidemiology of adenoviruses and to the best of our knowledge this is the first report on detection of enteric virus from surface waters in the Eastern Cape.     

Quantitative Detection of Human Adenovirus and Human Rotavirus Group A in Wastewater and El-Rahawy Drainage Canal Influencing River Nile in the North of Giza,Egypt

Food and Environmental Virology - Environmental monitoring is critical in a developing country like Egypt where there is an insufficient framework for recording and tracking outbreaks. In this...     

Assessment of the Risks for Human Health of Adenoviruses,Hepatitis A Virus,Rotaviruses and Enteroviruses in the Buffalo River and Three Source Water Dams in the Eastern Cape

Buffalo River is an important water resource in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The potential risks of infection constituted by exposure to human enteric viruses in the Buffalo River and three source water dams along its course were assessed using mean values and static quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). The daily risks of infection determined by the exponential model [for human adenovirus (HAdV) and enterovirus (EnV)] and the beta-Poisson model (for hepatitis A virus (HAV) and rotavirus (RoV)) varied with sites and exposure scenario. The estimated daily risks of infection values at the sites where the respective viruses were detected, ranged from 7.31 × 10^?3 to 1 (for HAdV), 4.23 × 10^?2 to 6.54 × 10^?1 (RoV), 2.32 × 10^?4 to 1.73 × 10^?1 (HAV) and 1.32 × 10^?4 to 5.70 × 10^?2 (EnV). The yearly risks of infection in individuals exposed to the river/dam water via drinking, recreational, domestic or irrigational activities were unacceptably high, exceeding the acceptable risk of 0.01 % (10^?4 infection/person/year), and the guideline value used as by several nations for drinking water. The risks of illness and death from infection ranged from 6.58 × 10^?5 to 5.0 × 10^?1 and 6.58 × 10^?9 to 5.0 × 10^?5, respectively. The threats here are heightened by the high mortality rates for HAV, and its endemicity in South Africa. Therefore, we conclude that the Buffalo River and its source water dams are a public health hazard. The QMRA presented here is the first of its kinds in the Eastern Cape Province and provides the building block for a quantitatively oriented local guideline for water quality management in the Province.     

Hepatitis A Virus,Hepatitis E Virus,and Rotavirus in Foods of Animal Origin Traded at the Borders of Brazil,Argentina, and Uruguay

The aim of this study was to investigate hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis E (HEV), and rotavirus (RV) in fresh and processed meat traded on the border of Brazil with Argentina and Uruguay. In total, 159 samples of raw and processed foods of animal origin were collected in Paso de los Libres, Argentina (n?=?53 raw meat, n?=?24 processed meat) and Rivera, Uruguay (n?=?55 raw meat, n?=?18 processed meat), or were seized by the Brazilian International Agricultural Surveillance System—VIGIAGRO (Brazil–Argentina border) (n?=?8 raw meat, n?=?1 bush meat). All samples were tested for the presence of HAV, HEV, and RV genomes. HAV genes were detected in 18.23% of samples and RV genes in 23.89%. No HEV-positive samples were detected. HAV was also detected in two of the VIGIAGRO samples. Processed meats from Argentina and Uruguay had a higher rate of HAV and RV than raw meat (P?>?0.05). The median HAV in the Argentinian and Uruguayan samples was 6.9?×?10⁴ and 3.5?×?10³ copies/g, respectively. The presence of RV viral genes in raw meats from Argentina was significant, and this was not observed in processed meats. The presence of HAV and RV genes in a significant portion of products from Argentina and Uruguay is a potential source of human infection. This also indicates precarious conditions of acquisition, processing, and manipulation, which could be improved by improved regulation of food across borders.     

Thermal Inactivation of Hepatitis A Virus,Noroviruses, and Simian Rotavirus in Cows' Milk

Food and Environmental Virology - Consumption of raw or unpasteurized milk is a risk for the consumers because indirect contaminations such as fecal-cross-contamination could occur and determine...     

Detection of Human Adenovirus,Rotavirus, and Enterovirus in Tap Water and Their Association with the Overall Quality of Water in Karachi,Pakistan

Food and Environmental Virology - Drinking water supplies in the developing world often serve as a biosphere for various organisms. Viral gastroenteritis is a neglected area of research in...     

Occurrence of Norovirus,Rotavirus, Hepatitis a Virus,and Enterovirus in Berries in Argentina

Food and Environmental Virology - Berries have been implicated as the probable vehicle of infection in multiple outbreaks of norovirus and hepatitis A virus (HAV). These foods often receive minimal...     

Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment of Hepatitis A Virus in Wastewaters in Tunisia

Hepatitis A causes substantial morbidity in both industrialized and non-industrialized countries and represents an important health problem in several southern Mediterranean countries. The objectives of the study were as follows: (a) to assess the occurrence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in Tunisia through the monitoring of urban wastewaters collected at wastewater treatment plants (WTPs); (b) to characterize environmental strains; and (c) to estimate the viral load in raw and treated sewages, in order to evaluate the potential impact on superficial waters receiving discharges. A total of 150 raw and treated wastewaters were collected from three WTPs and analyzed by both qualitative (RT-PCR/nested) and quantitative (qRT-PCR) methods. Of these, 100 (66 %) were found to be positive for HAV by the qualitative assay: 68.3 % in influents and 64.7 % in effluents. The vast majority of HAV sequences belonged to sub-genotype IA, with 11 different strains detected found to be identical to clinical strains isolated from Tunisian patients with acute hepatitis. Five unique variants were also detected, not previously reported in clinical cases. Only two IB strains were found, confirming the rarity of this sub-genotype in this country. The results of the present study indicate a wide circulation of the pathogen in the population, most probably in the form of asymptomatic infections, a finding consistent with the classification of the country as having intermediate/high endemicity. Quantitative data showed high viral loads in influents (3.5E+05 genome copies/liter, mean value) as well as effluents (2.5E+05 genome copies/liter, mean value), suggesting that contaminated water could be a critical element in transmission.     

Detection and Characterization of Hepatitis E Virus Genotype 3 in Wastewater and Urban Surface Waters in Germany

Food and Environmental Virology - In highly populated areas, environmental surveillance of wastewater and surface waters is a key factor to control the circulation of viruses and risks for public...     

大型啤酒企业废水处理工程的设计与运行

采用酸化-生物接触氧化工艺处理大型啤酒企业生产废水。工程运行表明在进水SS、CODCr、BOD5平均浓度分别为516mg／L、572mg／L、288mg／L的条件下，排出水的SS、CODCr、BOD5平均浓度分别为46mg／L、36mg／L、6．2mg／L，处理后水质达到《污水综合排放标准》(GB8978-1996)二级排放标准。本工艺具有运行稳定可靠，容积负荷高，处理效果好，运行费用低，污泥产量小；不发生污泥膨胀等特点。     

Quantitative Detection of Virulence Genes eaeA and rfbE of Pathogenic Escherichia coli in Municipal Wastewater by Real-Time PCR

针对病原性大肠埃希氏菌EHEC和EPEC的毒力基因eaeA和rfbE,选用特异性引物,建立了实时荧光定量PCR检测方法.利用从污水中分离出的目的核酸片段构建重组质粒,通过测序和BLAST比对分析,确定了PCR扩增的特异性.将重组质粒作为模板,分别测定标准曲线,在eaeA基因模板量8.77～8.77×105 copy,rfbE基因模板量4.98 ～4.98×105copy的范围内,Ct(循环阈值)与模板量的对数值具有良好的线性关系[ R2为0.997( eaeA)和1.000(rfbE)].结合膜吸附洗脱浓缩方法,对于实际水样,eaeA和rfbE基因的检测限分别为1.75×102和9.96×101copy/100 mL.利用该方法对城市污水处理厂进、出水进行检测的结果显示,污水二级处理工艺对这2种毒力基因的去除效果明显.     

污水处理厂出水中雌激素活性物质浓度与生态风险水平

再生水在环境和景观水体利用中,由微量有毒有害污染物,特别是内分泌干扰物引起的长期生态风险备受关注. 以再生水生态风险控制为目的,对城市污水处理厂出水(再生水)中雌激素活性物质浓度分布情况进行了研究,归纳了8种雌激素活性物质的出水浓度水平,比较分析了各物质的雌激素活性和生态风险. 结果表明:8种物质的质量浓度分布在ng/L～μg/L,其中ρ(类固醇)最低,为nd～50 ng/L;ρ(酚类)及ρ(酞酸酯类)主要在μg/L水平,个别高达40 μg/L. 雌激素活性分析和生态风险评价结果表明,污水处理厂出水(再生水)中3类雌激素活性物质的雌激素活性和生态风险顺序均为类固醇物质＞酚类物质＞酞酸酯类物质. 城市污水再生处理厂应优先控制乙炔基雌二醇(EE2)、雌酮(E1)和雌三醇(E3)等3种雌激素活性物质.      

Soil erosion in the Swartland,Western Cape Province,South Africa: implications of past and present policy and practice

The Western Cape Province of South Africa has a long history of human occupation and utilisation; the impact of colonial settlement (late 17th century onwards) on agriculture has been especially prominent. The Mediterranean-type climate of the Western Cape results in landscapes which are potentially susceptible to land degradation, perhaps even desertification. The Swartland is a gently undulating inland plateau underlain largely by fine-grained and nutrient-rich shales of the pre-Cambrian Malmesbury group. Agriculture is the dominant land use to the extent of wholesale landscape transformation. The area has been subject to significant levels of land degradation in the past, manifesting itself as widespread gully erosion. During the 1940s, the region was described as on the verge of economic collapse due to the severity of soil erosion, but concerted soil conservation and education efforts under the political dispensation of the time appear to have averted that scenario. The region now faces the combined challenges of potentially rapid climate change under a considerably altered socio-economic and political order. Downscaled climate change scenarios facilitate a regional assessment of changes in the parameters affecting soil erosion susceptibility in the Swartland and leads to a consideration of the implications of such scenarios for the continuation of contemporary land use practices.     

渤海湾天津沿岸海水中甲肝病毒的检测和定量

甲肝病毒（hepatitis A virus, HAV）是能引起传染性甲型肝炎的单链RNA病毒.用常规RT-PCR（反转录PCR）和SYBR Green实时定量RT-PCR方法,根据甲肝病毒保守的VP1-VP2基因序列设计引物,对渤海湾天津沿岸海水中的甲肝病毒进行了检测和定量分析. 9个样品取自渤海湾天津塘沽以南沿岸海水,取样时间分别是2007年夏、秋、冬季和2008年春季. 海水样品先用小型超滤装置（Millipore Pellicon Mini TFF）或超滤离心管（Millipore Centricon Plus-70）浓缩,然后进行RT-PCR检测.结果表明,从9个海水样品中都能扩增出192 bp的HAV cDNA,这些cDNA的核苷酸序列与GenBank中的同源序列相似性为95%～100%. 用SYBR Green 实时定量RT-PCR检测了春季和冬季的6个海水样品,结果表明,海水中甲肝病毒的浓度范围为5.35×10⁶～4.51×10⁷ virus particles/L.     

Contamination of Clams with Human Norovirus and a Novel Hepatitis A Virus in Cameroon

Food and Environmental Virology - Shellfish constitute an important protein source but may be contaminated by viruses from various origins. A study performed on clams collected in Cameroon showed a...     

The First Detection of Human Bocavirus Species 2 and 3 in Raw Sewage and Mussels in South Africa

Human bocavirus (HBoV) has a global distribution and is associated with respiratory and enteric infections, particularly in the paediatric population. In this study, raw sewage and mussel samples were analysed for the presence of HBoV using nested PCR with primers targeting the VP1/VP2 junction. Amplification and sequencing of the 382 bp region followed by phylogenetic analysis indicated the presence of HBoV 2 in mussel samples and HBoV 3 in sewage samples. This is the first report describing the presence of enteric-associated HBoV in environmental samples from South Africa and in mussel samples from the African continent. The results signify the need for further studies examining the potential risk of foodborne transmission of HBoV and highlight the importance of continued screening to determine the prevalence and epidemiology of HBoV in South Africa.     

Detection of Hepatitis A Virus in Strawberries Implicated in an Outbreak in the USA in 1997

Food and Environmental Virology - Hepatitis A virus (HAV) was detected in frozen strawberries which had been implicated in a large outbreak of hepatitis A in 1997. The sample was analysed after...     

Detection of Hepatitis A Virus and Norovirus in Different Food Categories: A 6-Year Survey in Italy

Food and Environmental Virology - To observe the prevalence of contamination by hepatitis A virus (HAV) and norovirus (NoV) in different food types, 9242 samples were analyzed over a 6-year period...     

Detection and Characterization of Hepatitis A Virus and Norovirus in Mussels from Galicia (NW Spain)

Shellfish are recognized as a potential vehicle of viral disease and despite the control measures for shellfish safety there is periodic emergence of viral outbreaks associated with shellfish consumption. In this study a total of 81 mussel samples from Ría do Burgo, A Coruña (NW Spain) were analysed. Samples were collected in seven different harvesting areas with the aim to establish a correlation between the prevalence of norovirus (NoV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) in mussel samples and the water quality. In addition, the genogroup of the detected HAV and NoV strains was also determined. The HAV presence was detected in 18.5 % of the samples. Contamination levels for this virus ranged from 1.1 × 10² to 4.1 × 10⁶ RNA copies/g digestive tissue. NoV were detected in 49.4 % of the cases reaching contamination levels from 5.9 × 10³ to 1.6 × 10⁹ RNA copies/g digestive tissue for NoV GI and from 6.1 × 10³ to 5.4 × 10⁶ RNA copies/g digestive tissue for NoV GII. The χ²-test showed no statistical correlation between the number of positive samples and the classification of molluscan harvesting area based on the E. coli number. All the detected HAV strains belong to genogroup IB. NoV strains were assigned to genotype I.4, II.4 and II.6.