Quantitative analysis of shoreline changes at the Mediterranean Coast in Turkey

This research is focused on the coastline evolution monitoring and its potential change estimation by remote sensing techniques using multi-temporal Landsat images at the southeast coasts of the Mediterranean Sea in Turkey. The study area includes the coastal zone located in the Cukurova Delta coasts. The Cukurova Delta has accreted toward the Mediterranean Sea as a result of sediment discharge and transport from Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers. These processes have caused the morphological changes (accretion or erosion) of coastline along some parts of the southeast coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. In this study, coastline changes were researched by using radiometrically and geometrically corrected multi-temporal and multi-spectral data from Landsat Multispectral Scanner dated 1972, Thematic Mapper dated 1987, and Enhanced Thematic Mapper dated 2002. In the image processing steps, mosaicing, subset, Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique classification, band ratioing (B5/B2), edge detection, and overlay techniques were used to carry out coastline extraction and the Digital Shoreline Analysis System was used to calculate rate of coastline changes. As a result of the analysis, in some parts of the research area, remarkable coastline changes (more than 2,900 m withdrawal and ??24.50 m/year erosion) were observed for a 30–year period.     

An examination of the effects of land use changes on nature conservation rulings in Çeşme peninsula, Turkey

Because of their intense vegetation and the fact that they include areas of coastline, deltas situated in the vicinity of big cities are areas of great attraction for people who wish to get away from in a crowded city. However, coasts, with their fertile soil and unique flora and fauna, need to be protected. In order for the use of such areas to be planned in a sustainable way by local authorities, there is a need for detailed data about these regions. In this study, the changes in land use of the area between Topburnu and Uçburun Musa Bey Harbour on the Çe?me peninsula, which is to the immediate west of Turkey’s third largest city ?zmir, from 1976 up to the present day, were investigated. In the study, using aerial photographs taken in 1976, 1995 and 2000 and an IKONOS satellite image from the year 2007, the natural and cultural characteristics of the region and changes in the coastline were determined spatially. Using aerial photographs from 1976, 1995 and 2000 and an IKONOS satellite image from the year 2007, together with “1/25,000 scale Conservation-Oriented Development Plans” prepared in 1979, 1990 and 2000 by the committee for the Preservation of Natural and Cultural Entities attached to the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Turkish Republic, the natural and cultural characteristics of the region and the land use changes and their connection with conservation rulings were determined spatially. In this study, spatial changes in land use over the years were compared with changing conservation rulings over the years and the emerging results have brought a new perspective to the subject in contrast to other similar studies.     

Evaluating climate change effects on water and salt resources in Salt Lake, Turkey using multitemporal SPOT imagery

The main goal of this study is to investigate the dimension of climate change effects in Salt Lake and its vicinity in Turkey using satellite remote sensing data. The first stage of the study includes evaluation of the multitemporal climatic data on the Salt Lake Basin Area, Turkey for a period of 35 years (1970–2005). The changes in mean temperature and precipitation are evaluated for the study area by comparing two periods, 1970–1992 and 1993–2005. In the second stage, the effects of climate changes in the Salt Lake are investigated by evaluating water and salt reserve changes through seasonal and multitemporal SPOT imagery collected in 1987 and 2005. The climatic data and remotely sensed and treated satellite images show that water and salt reserve in Salt Lake has decreased between 1987 and 2005 due to drought and uncontrolled water usage. It is suggested that the use of water supplies, especially underground waters, around the Salt Lake should be controlled and the lake should regularly be monitored by current remote sensing data for an effective management of water and salt resources in the region.     

Response of lake water quality to wastewater inputs from land-based fish farm located on Yuvarlakçay Creek in Köyceğiz–Dalyan Specially Protected Area, Turkey

Köyce?iz Lake is located in the south-western part of Turkey. The area between the Köyce?iz Lake and the Mediterranean Sea is covered with four small lakes and several canals. The surroundings of the lake, canals and forests have a great potential as a reproduction areas for Mediterranean Sea turtles (Caretta caretta) and sheltering place for various animals. In the vicinity of this system there are agricultural areas and small settlements. In this region the most important economic activities are tourism and fisheries. However, the lake is currently threatened by pollution because of (1) non-point source pollution (agriculture); (2) point sources (land-based fish farms); (3) inefficient sewerage systems; (4) uncontrolled soil erosion in its drainage basin; (5) inappropriate flood control measures; and (6) channel traffic. This study evaluates the influence of its influent creeks namely Namnam and Yuvarlakçay Creek on the water quality of Köyce?iz Lake, mainly because the creeks are believed to be responsible for the major pollutant load reaching the lake. Accordingly, this study demonstrates (1) change in the water quality of Köyce?iz Lake from 2006 to 2007; (2) the water quality classification of the major influent creeks feeding Köyce?iz Lake; and (3) how land-based fish farm influences Yuvarlakçay Creek water quality in a Köyce?iz–Dalyan Specially Protected Area.     

Solid waste disposal site selection with GIS and AHP methodology: a case study in Senirkent�CUluborlu (Isparta) Basin, Turkey

The appropriate site selection for waste disposal is one of the major problems in waste management. Also, many environmental, economical, and political considerations must be adhered to. In this study, landfill site selection is performed using the Geographic Information System (GIS), the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), and the remote sensing methods for the Senirkent?CUluborlu Basin. The basin is located in the E?irdir Lake catchment area, which is one of the most important fresh water in Turkey. So, waste management must be regulated in the basin. For this aim, ten different criteria (lithology, surface water, aquifer, groundwater depth, land use, lineaments, aspect, elevation, slope, and distance to roads) are examined in relation to landfill site selection. Each criterion was identified and weighted using AHP. Then, each criterion is mapped using the GIS technique, and a suitability map is prepared by overlay analyses. The results indicate that 96.3% of the area in the basin is unsuitable; 1.6%, moderately suitable; and 2.1%, most suitable. Finally, suitable regions in the basin are determined for solid waste landfill disposal and checked in the field. The selected and investigated regions are considered to be suitable for the landfill.     

黄河流域甘肃段面源污染估算与空间分析

采用遥感分布式面源污染评估模型（DPeRS）,对2018年黄河流域(甘肃段)面源污染空间分布特征进行分析,具体包括多类型污染量产排特征解析和流域优先管控单元识别。结果表明,污染量上,2018年黄河流域（甘肃段）总氮(TN)、总磷(TP)、氨氮(NH₃^-N)、化学需氧量(COD_Cr)的面源污染排放负荷分别为65.6,11.8,19.1和77.2 kg/km²,入河量分别为836.7,33.3,220.2和1 353.3 t;空间分布上,氮型(TN和NH₃^-N)排放负荷高值区主要分布在流域中部和东部局部地区,流域大部分地区TP排放负荷均较高,COD_Cr面源污染排放负荷高值区分布较为零散。与排放负荷相比,黄河流域（甘肃段）面源污染入河负荷并不突出,这与该地区水资源量少有密切关系。筛选出黄河流域（甘肃段）面源污染优先控制单元15个,面积占比为85.2%,I类优控单元主要分布在庆阳市、天水市、兰州市和白银市等地区,II类优控单元主要分布在甘南藏族自治州,且TN、TP、NH₃^-N和COD_Cr面源污染优控单元识别结果的平均精度达到80%。     

Monitoring the changing position of coastlines using aerial and satellite image data: an example from the eastern coast of Trabzon, Turkey

Coastline mapping and coastline change detection are critical issues for safe navigation, coastal resource management, coastal environmental protection, and sustainable coastal development and planning. Changes in the shape of coastline may fundamentally affect the environment of the coastal zone. This may be caused by natural processes and/or human activities. Over the past 30 years, the coastal sites in Turkey have been under an intensive restraint associated with a population press due to the internal and external touristic demand. In addition, urbanization on the filled up areas, settlements, and the highways constructed to overcome the traffic problems and the other applications in the coastal region clearly confirm an intensive restraint. Aerial photos with medium spatial resolution and high resolution satellite imagery are ideal data sources for mapping coastal land use and monitoring their changes for a large area. This study introduces an efficient method to monitor coastline and coastal land use changes using time series aerial photos (1973 and 2002) and satellite imagery (2005) covering the same geographical area. Results show the effectiveness of the use of digital photogrammetry and remote sensing data on monitoring large area of coastal land use status. This study also showed that over 161 ha areas were filled up in the research area and along the coastal land 12.2 ha of coastal erosion is determined for the period of 1973 to 2005. Consequently, monitoring of coastal land use is thus necessary for coastal area planning in order to protecting the coastal areas from climate changes and other coastal processes.     

Assessing implications of land use and land cover changes in forest ecosystems of NE Turkey

Monitoring land use and land cover change (LUCC) and understanding forest cover dynamics is extremely important in sustainable development and management of forest ecosystems. This study analyzed the spatial and temporal pattern of LUCC in the Yaln?zçam and U?urlu forest planning units which are located in the northeast corner of Turkey. The investigation also evaluates the temporal changes of the spatial structure of forest conditions through the spatial analysis of forest-cover type maps from 1972 and 2005 using geographical information systems and FRAGSTATS^TM. As an overall change between 1972 and 2005, there was a net increase of 1,823 ha in forested areas, and cumulative forest improvement accounted for 2.06 %. In terms of spatial configuration, the landscape structure in the study area changed substantially over the 33-year study period, resulting in fragmentation of the landscape as indicated by large patch numbers and smaller mean patch sizes, owing to heavy grazing, illegal cutting, and uncontrolled stand treatments.     

Land use change and landslide characteristics analysis for community-based disaster mitigation

On August 8, 2009, Typhoon Morakot brought heavy rain to Taiwan, causing numerous landslides and debris flows in the Taihe village area of Meishan Township, Chiayi County, in south-central Taiwan. In the Taihe land is primary used for agriculture and land use management may be a factor in the area’s landslides. This study explores Typhoon Morakot-induced landslides and land use changes between 1999 and 2009 using GIS with the aid of field investigation. Spot 5 satellite images with a resolution of 2.5 m are used for landslide interpretation and manually digitalized in GIS. A statistical analysis for landslide frequency–area distribution was used to identify the landslide characteristics associated with different types of land use. There were 243 landslides with a total area of 2.75 km² in the study area. The area is located in intrinsically fragile combinations of sandstone and shale. Typhoon Morakot-induced landslides show a power–law distribution in the study area. Landslides were mainly located in steep slope areas containing natural forest and in areas planted with bamboo, tea, and betel nut. Land covered with natural forest shows the highest landslide ratio, followed by bamboo, betel nut, and tea. Landslides thus show a higher ratio in areas planted with shallow root vegetation such as bamboo, betel nut, and tea. Furthermore, the degree of basin development is proportional to the landslide ratio. The results show that a change in vegetation cover results in a modified landslide area and frequency and changed land use areas have higher landslide ratios than non-changed. Land use management and community-based disaster prevention are needed in mountainous areas of Taiwan for hazard mitigation.     

Dynamics of Typical Agricultural Landscape and its Relationship With Water Resource in Inland Shiyang River Watershed, Gansu Province, Northwest China

Shiyang River basin is located in Hexi Corridor, central-west Gansu province, northwest China. It is an area of typical arid to semiarid features. Based on the TM image of Liangzhou oasis and Minqin oasis in 1986 and 2000, this paper calculated and analyzed the changes of percentage and area of land use/cover types, and also have got the transformation matrix of the landscape mosaics. Dynamics of runoff and exploitation of groundwater, the most important factors influencing land use changes were also analyzed. The ratio of utilized water quantity in upper and middle reaches to that in lower reaches has increased largely from less than 2 before 1970 reached up to more than 8 since 1995; groundwater exploitation has developed progressively. As a result of overuse of groundwater, the groundwater table lowering obviously, the lowering rates reached up to 0.6–0.8 m/year in some place. In addition, the cropping patterns in study area were also distributed irrefficiently that if the planting percentage of water-wasting grain crops dropped to 50% in both oases, it could save irrigating water by 1.2×10⁸ m³ in Liangzhou oasis and 0.2×10⁸ m³ in Minqin oasis one year.     

Land use pattern, socio-economic development, and assessment of their impacts on ecosystem service value: study on natural wetlands distribution area (NWDA) in Fuzhou city, southeastern China

This paper quantifies the allocation of ecosystem services value (ESV) associated with land use pattern and qualitatively examined impacts of land use changes and socio-economic factors on spatiotemporal variation of ESV in the Natural Wetland Distribution Area (NWDA), Fuzhou city, China. The results showed that total ESV of the study area decreased from 4,332.16?×?10⁶ RMB Yuan in 1989 to 3,697.42?×?10⁶ RMB Yuan in 2009, mainly due to the remarkable decreases in cropland (decreased by 55.3 %) and wetland (decreased by 74.2 %). Forest, water, and wetland played major roles in providing ecosystem services, accounting for over 90 % of the total ESV. Based on time series Landsat TM/ETM+ imagery, geographic information system, and historical data, analysis of the spatiotemporal variation of ESV from 1989 to 2009 was performed. It indicated that rapid expansion of urban areas along the Minjiang River resulted in significant changes in land use types, leading to a dramatic decline in ecosystem services. Meanwhile, because of land scarcity and unique ecosystem functions, the emergency of wetland and cropland protection in built-up area has become an urgent task of local authorities to the local government. Furthermore, there was still a significant negative correlation between ESV of cropland and wetland and the GDP. The results suggest that future planning of land use pattern should control encroachment of urban areas into cropland and wetland in addition to scientific and rational policies towards minimizing the adverse effects of urbanization.     

Monitoring land use/land cover changes using CORINE land cover data: a case study of Silivri coastal zone in Metropolitan Istanbul

The objective of the present study was to assess changes in land use/land cover patterns in the coastal town of Silivri, a part of greater Istanbul administratively. In the assessment, remotely sensed data, in the form of satellite images, and geographic information systems were used. Types of land use/land cover were designated as the percentage of the total area studied. Results calculated from the satellite data for land cover classification were compared successfully with the database Coordination of Information on the Environment (CORINE). This served as a reference to appraise the reliability of the study presented here. The CORINE Program was established by the European Commission to create a harmonized Geographical Information System on the state of the environment in the European Community. Unplanned urbanization is causing land use changes mainly in developing countries such as Turkey. This situation in Turkey is frequently observed in the city of Istanbul. There are only a few studies of land use–land cover changes which provide an integrated assessment of the biophysical and societal causes and consequences of environmental degradation in Istanbul. The research area comprised greater Silivri Town which is situated by the coast of Marmara Sea, and it is located approximately 60 km west of Istanbul. The city of Istanbul is one of the largest metropolises in Europe with ca. 15 million inhabitants. Additionally, greater Silivri is located near the terminal point of the state highway connecting Istanbul with Europe. Measuring of changes occurring in land use would help control future planning of settlements; hence, it is of importance for the Gretaer Silivri and Silivri Town. Following our evaluations, coastal zone of Silivri was classified into the land use groups of artificial surfaces agricultural areas and forests and seminatural areas with 47.1%, 12.66%, and 22.62%, respectively.     

Physicochemical quality evaluation of groundwater and development of drinking water quality index for Araniar River Basin, Tamil Nadu, India

Groundwater is the most important natural resource which cannot be optimally used and sustained unless its quality is properly assessed. In the present study, the spatial and temporal variations in physicochemical quality parameters of groundwater of Araniar River Basin, India were analyzed to determine its suitability for drinking purpose through development of drinking water quality index (DWQI) maps of the post- and pre-monsoon periods. The suitability for drinking purpose was evaluated by comparing the physicochemical parameters of groundwater in the study area with drinking water standards prescribed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). Interpretation of physicochemical data revealed that groundwater in the basin was slightly alkaline. The cations such as sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) and anions such as bicarbonate (HCO₃ ^?) and chloride (Cl^?) exceeded the permissible limits of drinking water standards (WHO and BIS) in certain pockets in the northeastern part of the basin during the pre-monsoon period. The higher total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration was observed in the northeastern part of the basin, and the parameters such as calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), sulfate (SO₄ ^2?), nitrate (NO₃ ^?), and fluoride (F^?) were within the limits in both the seasons. The hydrogeochemical evaluation of groundwater of the basin demonstrated with the Piper trilinear diagram indicated that the groundwater samples of the area were of Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-Cl^?-SO₄ ^2?, Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-HCO₃ ^? and Na⁺-K⁺-Cl^?-SO₄ ^2? types during the post-monsoon period and Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-Cl^?-SO₄ ^2?, Na⁺-K⁺-Cl^?-SO₄ ^2? and Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-HCO₃ ^? types during the pre-monsoon period. The DWQI maps for the basin revealed that 90.24 and 73.46 % of the basin area possess good quality drinking water during the post- and pre-monsoon seasons, respectively.     

Assessing the changes in land use and ecosystem services in an oasis agricultural region of Yanqi Basin,Northwest China

The Yanqi Basin, one of the most productive agricultural areas, has a high population density in Xinjiang, Northwest China. Land use changes, mainly driven by oasis expansion, significantly impact ecosystem services and functions, but these effects are difficult to quantify. The valuation of ecosystem services is important to clarify the ecological and environmental changes caused by agriculturalization of oasis. This study aimed to investigate variations in ecosystem services in response to land use changes during oasis agricultural expansion activities in the Yanqi Basin from 1964 to 2009. The methods used were based on formula of ecosystem service value (ESV) and ESV coefficients. Satellite data were combined with the ESV coefficients to quantify land use changes and ecosystem service changes in the study area. Sensitivity analysis determined the effect of manipulating the coefficients on the estimated values. The results show that the total ESVs in the Yanqi Basin were $1,674, $1,692, $1,471, $1,732, and $1,603 million in 1964, 1973, 1989, 1999, and 2009, respectively. The net deline in ESV was $71 million in the past 46 years, but the ESVs of each types of landscape changed significantly. The aggregated ESVs of water areas and wetlands were approximately 80 % of the total ESV. Water supply and waste treatment were the two largest service functions and contributed approximately 65 % of the total ESV. The estimated ESVs in this study were elastic with respect to the value coefficients. Therefore, the estimations were robust in spite of uncertainties on the value coefficients. These significant changes in land use occur within the entire basin over the study period. These changes cause environmental problems, such as land degradation, vegetation degeneracy, and changes in aquatic environment.     

Determination of Impact of Urbanization on Agricultural Land and Wetland Land Use in Balçovas’ Delta by Remote Sensing and GIS Technique

Because of their intense vegetation and the fact that they include areas of coastline, deltas situated in the vicinity of big cities are areas of greet attraction for people who wish to get away from in a crowded city. However, deltas, with their fertile soil and unique flora and fauna, need to be protected. In order for the use of such areas to be planned in a sustainable way by local authorities, there is a need for detailed data about these regions. In this study, the changes in land use of the Balçova Delta, which is to the immediate west of Turkey’s third largest city Izmir, from 1957 up to the present day, were investigated. In the study, using aerial photographs taken in 1957, 1976 and 1995 and an IKONOS satellite image from the year 2005, the natural and cultural characteristics of the region and changes in the coastline were determined spatially. Through this study, which aimed to reveal the characteristics of the areas of land already lost as well as the types of land use in the Balçova delta and to determine geographically the remaining areas in need of protection, local authorities were provided with the required data support. Balçova consists of flat and fertile wetland with mainly citrus-fruit orchards and flower-producing green houses. The marsh and lagoon system situated in the coastal areas of the delta provides a habitat for wild life, in particular birds. In the Balçova Delta, which provides feeding and resting for migratory birds, freshwater sources are of vital importance for fauna and flora. The settlement area, which in 1957 was 182 ha, increased 11-fold up to the year 2005 when it reached 2,141 ha. On the other hand, great losses were determined in farming land, olive groves, forest and in the marsh and lagoon system. This unsystematic and rapid urbanization occurring in the study region is not only causing the loss of important agricultural land and wetland, but also lasting water and soil pollution.     

Assessment of pollution profile in Buyukcekmece Watershed, Turkey

Buyukcekmece Lake located north of the Marmara Sea coast of Turkey is the third largest water resources among the six main reservoirs of a megacity Istanbul, providing 17% water demand. This study aims to investigate the water quality changes in Buyukcekmece Lake and to classify it in accordance to Turkish Water Pollution Control Regulation for inland surface waters, and assess the impacts of the land-use practices, population density, and settlement in the Buyukcekmece watershed. Physical, chemical, and biological quality of Büyükçekmece Lake has been investigated between December 2007 and June 2008 by collecting samples from the Lake and four streams that feed Büyükçekmece Lake. Land use profile maps of the water basin were created by using ARC-GIS to ensure the quality of drinking water. It was determined that the water quality of Büyükçekmece Lake was still of overall second class, implying that it can be used as a safe drinking water resource following a conventional water treatment scheme; however, it is moving toward the third class. Remarkable portion of the pollution in water basin was attributed to domestic wastewater discharges. Agricultural areas that occupy more than half of the water basin have also adversely affected the water quality.     

Groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and agricultural use in the Yanqi Basin of Xinjiang Province, Northwest China

The Yanqi Basin in Xinjiang Province is an important agricultural area with a high population density. The extensive agricultural activities in the Yanqi Basin started in the 1950s with flood irrigation techniques. Since then, the groundwater table was raised because of the absence of an efficient drainage system. This obstacle is a crucial factor that restricts sustainable socioeconomic development. Hydrochemical investigations were conducted in the Yanqi Basin, Northwestern China, to determine the chemical composition of groundwater. Sixty groundwater samples were collected from different wells to monitor the water chemistry of various ions. The results of the chemical analysis indicate that the groundwater in the area is generally neutral to slightly alkaline and predominantly contains Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ cations as well as HCO₃ ^? and SO₄ ²⁺ anions. High positive correlations between HCO₃ ^?–Mg²⁺ + Ca²⁺, SO ₄ ^2?–Mg²⁺, SO₄ ^2?–Na⁺ + K⁺, and Cl^?–Na⁺ + K⁺ were obtained. The total dissolved solids (TDS) mainly depend on the concentration of major ions such as HCO₃ ^?, SO₄ ^2?, Cl^?, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and Na⁺ + K⁺. The dominant hydrochemical facies for groundwater are Ca²⁺–Mg²⁺–HCO₃ ^?, Mg²⁺–Ca²⁺–SO₄ ^2?–Cl^?, Na⁺–K⁺–Cl^?–SO₄ ^2?, and Na⁺–K⁺–Mg²⁺–Cl^?–HCO₃ ^? types. The hydrochemical processes are the main factors that determine the water quality of the groundwater system. These processes include silicate mineral weathering, dissolution, ion exchange, and, to a lesser extent, evaporation, which seem to be more pronounced downgradient of the flow system. The saturation index (SI), which is calculated according to the ionic ratio plot, indicates that the gypsum–halite dissolution reactions occur during a certain degree of rock weathering. SI also indicates that evaporation is the dominant factor that determines the major ionic composition in the study area. The assessment results of the water samples using various methods indicate that the groundwater in the study area is generally hard, fresh to brackish, high to very high saline, and low alkaline in nature. The high total hardness and TDS of the groundwater in several places indicate the unsuitability of the groundwater for drinking and irrigation. These areas require particular attention, particularly in the construction of adequate drainage as well as in the introduction of an alternative salt tolerance cropping.     

Aerial and terrestrial-based monitoring of channel erosion,headcutting, and sinuosity

Headcuts are points of accelerated channel erosion that frequently have ecological consequences. A particularly large and dynamic headcut in southwest Wyoming has affected natural and anthropogenic resources for decades. To better understand and address this issue, we undertook a review of the headcut’s upstream retreat, followed by photogrammetric monitoring of the present condition for erosion monitoring. Aerial photography shows the Bitter Creek headcut retreated >?200 m upstream in 68 years (1948–2016) at ~?1.4 m year^?1. Following installation of a concrete slab structure in the mid-1970s, headcut retreat slowed to ~?0.5 m year^?1. Channel sinuosity downstream of the headcut is greater than upstream, which we attribute to the presence of the headcut, given that there are no major changes in valley geometry, geology, or soils through this reach. Both aerial and terrestrial-based image platforms were used to collect stereo imagery and create 3D photogrammetric models of the headcut in 2016. From these two models, we measured soil loss downstream of the headcut at ~?126 m³ m^?1 valley length. Since 1954, soil loss within the channel has been ~?98 m³ year^?1 or ~871 t ha^?1 year^?1since then. Models created from aerial- and terrestrial-based images differed in volumetric estimates by 2%, indicating that either method could be used for this type of monitoring. The ground-based imagery model showed more detail, especially on vertical and overhanging surfaces, while the aerial imagery model produced a more realistic orthomosaic and efficiently covered a larger area. Ground-based image acquisition took longer and was more costly per unit area, but is an efficient method for small project areas, or areas where aerial imagery cannot be safely or practically acquired. Historical imagery and photogrammetric modeling proved very useful in elucidating stream dynamics associated with this large, dynamic headcut.     

Selection of MSW landfill site for Konya, Turkey using GIS and multi-criteria evaluation

Landfill is a common solution for the final disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW) in Turkey. Landfill siting is an extremely difficult task to accomplish because the site selection process depends on different factors and regulations. To ensure that an appropriate site is chosen, a systematic process should be developed and followed. Unsuccessful landfill siting is typically the result of strong public opposition. In this study, candidate sites for an appropriate landfill area in Cumra County of Konya City are determined by using the integration of geographic information systems (GIS) and multi-criteria evaluation (MCE). ArcGIS 9.0 software and its extensions were used as the GIS tool since it is able to perform suitability analysis using MCE analysis. To identify appropriate landfill areas in the Cumra district, eight input map layers including proximity to municipal and local wells and irrigational canals, distance from transportation routes and rails, distance from archaeological sites, distance from urban areas, land use/land cover, and land slope are used in constraint mapping. A final map was generated which identifies regions showing suitability for the location of the landfill site. According to the map, 6.8% of the study area is most suitable, 15.7% is suitable, 10.4% is moderately suitable, 25.8% is poorly suitable, and 41.3% is unsuitable. At the end of the analyses, three candidate sites are determined. The selection of the final MSW landfill site, however, requires further field research.     

Metals in water, sediments, and biota of an offshore oil exploration area in the Potiguar Basin, Northeastern Brazil

Metal concentrations were evaluated in water, bottom sediments, and biota in four field campaigns from 2002 to 2004 in the Potiguar Basin, northeastern Brazil, where offshore oil exploration occurs. Analyses were performed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. Total metal concentrations in water (dissolved?+?particulate) and sediments were in the range expected for coastal and oceanic areas. Abnormally high concentrations in waters were only found for Ba (80 μg?l^?1) and Mn (12 μg?l^?1) at the releasing point of one of the outfalls, and for the other metals, concentrations in water were found in stations closer to shore, suggesting continental inputs. In bottom sediments, only Fe and Mn showed abnormal concentrations closer to the effluent releasing point. Metal spatial distribution in shelf sediments showed the influence of the silt–clay fraction distribution, with deeper stations at the edge of the continental shelf, which are much richer in silt–clay fraction showing higher concentrations than shallower sediments typically dominated by carbonates. Metal concentrations in estuarine (mollusks and crustaceans) and marine (fish) organisms showed highest concentrations in oysters (Crassostrea rhizophorae). Fish tissues metal concentrations were similar between the continental shelf influenced by the oil exploration area and a control site. The results were within the range of concentrations reported for pristine environments without metals contamination. The global results suggest small, if any, alteration in metal concentrations due to the oil exploration activity in the Potiguar Basin. For monitoring purposes, the continental inputs and the distribution of the clay–silt fraction need to be taken into consideration for interpreting environmental monitoring results.