Computer software tool REALM for sustainable water allocation and management

REALM (REsource ALlocation Model) is a generalised computer simulation package that models harvesting and bulk distribution of water resources within a water supply system. It is a modeling tool, which can be applied to develop specific water allocation models. Like other water resource simulation software tools, REALM uses mass-balance accounting at nodes, while the movement of water within carriers is subject to capacity constraints. It uses a fast network linear programming algorithm to optimise the water allocation within the network during each simulation time step, in accordance with user-defined operating rules. This paper describes the main features of REALM and provides potential users with an appreciation of its capabilities. In particular, it describes two case studies covering major urban and rural water supply systems. These case studies illustrate REALM's capabilities in the use of stochastically generated data in water supply planning and management, modelling of environmental flows, and assessing security of supply issues.     

Coastal Zone Problems and Environmental Strategies to be Implemented at Edremit Bay, Turkey

This case study examines the coastal zone problems focusing on the existing conflicts between tourism and commercial activities on the coasts of Edremit Bay, Turkey, and attempts to suggest solutions to these problems. Edremit Bay is a characteristic example of such a conflict in collective use of natural resources. The study area, with its 100-km-long sandy beach, naturally attracts different coastal user groups with different beneficial expectations: in terms of rest and recreation for one group and commercial gain offered in a variety of ways for another group. Significant coastal zone problems exist in the study area. Deterioration of shoreline due to tourism activities and illegal constructions, damage to the coastal ecosystem due to domestic/industrial wastewater discharges and some agricultural activities, and disordered urbanization are only a few of the many problems. The data presented here were partly derived from field study and partly collected from local state or private organizations. In this study, it is emphasized that there is a need for viable economic and environmental strategies to be designated in Edremit Bay, Turkey, in order to provide sustainable resource use. For this purpose, an integrated project together with a relevant planning chart including subprojects is also suggested. The success of a local environmental protection management project depends on active participation of all stakeholders including governmental organizations and nongovernmental organizations.     

HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING CENTER PLANNING MODELS1

ABSTRACT: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has broad, nationwide water resources planning and management responsibilities. In response to the needs of Corps professionals, the Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC) has developed and supports a family of computer programs designed to aid them in their work. These programs include catchment, channel, alluvial, and statistical process models, system operation models, plan evaluation models, and data management programs. These models individually and collectively have been used throughout the Corps in a wide range of water resources planning studies.     

MODELING TIDAL HYDRODYNAMICS OF SAN DIEGO BAY,CALIFORNIA1

ABSTRACT: In 1983, current data were collected by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration using mechanical current meters. During 1992 through 1996, acoustic Doppler current profilers as well as mechanical current meters and tide gauges were used. These measurements not only document tides and tidal currents in San Diego Bay, but also provide independent data sets for model calibration and verification. A high resolution (100-m grid), depth-averaged, numerical hydrodynamic model has been implemented for San Diego Bay to describe essential tidal hydrodynamic processes in the bay. The model is calibrated using the 1983 data set and verified using the more recent 1992–1996 data. Discrepancies between model predictions and field data in both model calibration and verification are on the order of the magnitude of uncertainties in the field data. The calibrated and verified numerical model has been used to quantify residence time and dilution and flushing of contaminant effluent into San Diego Bay. Furthermore, the numerical model has become an important research tool in ongoing hydrodynamic and water quality studies and in guiding future field data collection programs.     

Can you tell a green field from a cold steel rail? Examining the “green” of Green Infrastructure development

The rapid development of Green Infrastructure as an approach to planning has enabled landscape practitioners to implement a range of projects utilising its principles. Discussions though exist examining what Green Infrastructure is, how it should be planned, and whether it can be identified as only those elements of the landscape that are green. A further element of this argument examines the use of water within this process. Therefore, as planners, we can ask: can we tell a green field from a cold steel rail? Both may have a green or sustainable function with only the visual appearance differing. Debates, however, focus on practitioner selectivity of the interpretation of “green” infrastructure planning exploring whether physical landscape characteristics or the function of an investment is the main focus of discussion. Using the grey–green continuum developed by Davies et al. [2006. Green infrastructure planning guide project: Final report. Annfield Plain: NECF], this paper examines whether geographical differences exist in the application of the Green Infrastructure and examine how practitioners use the ambiguity of Green Infrastructure planning to guide investment. Drawing on academic and practitioner literature provides this paper with a balance of conceptual and process-based assessments evaluations of global Green Infrastructure focusing on the design and implementation of terrestrial and marine resources. This paper also examines whether the dominant landscape planning framework in each region could be considered contradictory to the wider application of Green Infrastructure principles.     

Sustainable Water Resources Management in a Conflict Resolution Framework1

Abstract: A decision support system for sustainable water resources management in a water conflict resolution framework is developed to identify and evaluate a range of acceptable alternatives for the Geum River Basin in Korea and to facilitate strategies that will result in sustainable water resource management. Working with stakeholders in a “shared vision modeling” framework, sustainable management strategies are created to illustrate system tradeoffs as well as long‐term system planning. A multi‐criterion decision‐making (MCDM) approach using subjective scales is utilized to evaluate the complex water resource allocation and management tradeoffs between stakeholders and system objectives. The procedures used in this study include the development of a “shared vision model,” a simulated decision‐making support system (as a tool for sustainable water management strategies associated with water conflicts, management options, and planning criteria), and the application of MCDM techniques for evaluating alternatives provided by the model. The research results demonstrate the utility of the sustainable water resource management model in aid of MCDM techniques in facilitating flexibility during initial stages of alternative identification and evaluation in a basin suffering from severe water conflicts.     

Disciplined Planning,Structured Participation,and Collaborative Modeling — Applying Shared Vision Planning to Water Resources

Participatory planning applied to water resources has sparked significant interest and debate during the last decade. Recognition that models play a significant role in the formulation and implementation of design and management strategies has encouraged the profession to consider how such models can be best implemented. Shared Vision Planning (SVP) is a disciplined planning approach that combines traditional water resources planning methodologies with innovations such as structured public participation and the use of collaborative modeling, resulting in a more complete understanding and an integrative decision support tool. This study reviews these three basic components of SVP and explains how they are incorporated into a unified planning approach. The successful application of SVP is explored in three studies involving planning challenges: the National Drought Study, the Lake Ontario‐St. Lawrence River Study, and the Apalachicola‐Chattahoochee‐Flint/Alabama‐Coosa‐Tallapoosa River Basin Study. The article concludes by summarizing the advantages and limitations of this planning approach.     

HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES FOR REGIONAL WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

The emphasis upon comprehensive regional water resources planning in the past decade has encouraged the hydrologic engineer to take advantage of improvements in technology to develop new hydrologic engineering techniques for use in regional planning studies. The new techniques are necessary because the traditional hydro-logic engineering techniques are not always consistent with the increased scope and diversified objectives of regional planning studies. The Hydrologic Engineering Center has been involved in aiding in the development of some of these new techniques as the result of studies that have been made in cooperation with other Corps of Engineers offices. Most of the new techniques being developed emphasize computational procedures developed specifically for use with electronic computers. Applications of new techniques range from framework studies to planning of day-to-day operation criteria. Studies recently completed or in progress include: (1) development of a regional flood control site screening plan for the North Atlantic Region study; (2) use of streamflow simulation for planning and operation of the Missouri River mainstem projects; (3) development of an operation plan for the Arkansas-White-Red Rivers Reservoir System; (4) standard project flood and flood frequency estimates for the Colorado River Basin Framework Study; and several other projects which are described in more detail in the following paragraphs. One of the initial efforts in regional analysis was the formulation of procedures for determining standard project flood estimates for southern California coastal streams using generalized criteria. Techniques were developed that were readily adaptable to the computer and which would determine representative unit hydrographs, losses and standard project precipitation for any location in the study area. The resulting standard project flood estimates were consistent with the accuracy required for framework studies; however, they could be refined easily for design studies. As a result of the recent drought in the Northeastern United States, a study was made to evaluate both present and future water supply reservoirs in that region. The study consisted of computerized studies of the hypothetical operation of a large number of reservoirs as a system. The reservoirs were on many different streams throughout the region and had varying constraints, depending upon the stream and the state in which the reservoir was located. Since only preliminary data was available on the proposed reservoirs, it was not possible to refine the studies to a large degree. However, the models of each system can be easily refined as more accurate design data become available. The development of a computer-aided screening procedure for use in evaluating several hundred potential reservoir sites for the Missouri River Basin Comprehensive Framework Study is a third example of regional analysis. The adopted procedures used available physical, hydrologic, and climatologic data in estimating reservoir storage requirements throughout the basin. Because the procedure is based upon the techniques often used in more refined studies, it is expected that the results of the screening study will be very useful in future planning and design work. Shortcomings of some of the traditional techniques have helped in the development of new techniques. For maximum usefulness the new techniques should: (1) be consistent with the scope, objectives, and requirements of the overall study; (2) use all available physical, hydrologic, and climatologic data without requiring extensive data which may not be available; (3) take full advantage of the capabilities of the computer and associated data processing systems; and (4) produce results which form a firm basis for future, more detailed, planning and design studies instead of being limited in usefulness largely to the study at hand.     

UTILIZATION OF MODELS IN WATER RESOURCES1

ABSTRACT: A 1984 survey of water resources personnel was conducted to determine the current and future uses of mathematical models in planning, design and operations of water resources systems. Eighty-six percent of those responding indicated they have used mathematical models in the last year. Lack of appropriate data, inadequate time and funding to do the modeling and lack of models that represent the “real world” situation were the most frequently mentioned constraints to model use. Microcomputers were seen as having a positive influence on mathematical model use in water resources.     

VELOCITY EQUATION FOR WATER QUALITY MODELING IN GEORGIA1

ABSTRACT: Tabletop water quality modeling still plays an important role in the water pollution control activities of the Georgia Environmental Protection Division. Tabletop models are those developed with out the aid of extensive field data. One important component of GEORGIA DOSAG, our basic water quality model, is the equation used to predict flow through velocity. However, Georgia is characterized by wide physiographic diversity which reduces the effectiveness of uncalibrated velocity equations. Using 15 years of accumulated time-of-travel studies, a series of empirical velocity equations were developed and calibrated to various physiographic conditions in Georgia. Equations are available for each major soil province and for three stream flow ranges within each province - Q<100 cfs, 100<Q<1000 cfs, and Q>1000 cfs. Now, in the absence of extensive field data, we have data based velocity equations which can be tailored to each site under study.     

DECISION SUPPORT FOR ALLOCATION OF WATERSHED POLLUTION LOAD USING GREY FUZZY MULTIOBJECTIVE PROGRAMMING1

ABSTRACT: This paper uses the grey fuzzy multiobjective programming to aid in decision making for the allocation of waste load in a river system under versatile uncertainties and risks. It differs from previous studies by considering a multicriteria objective function with combined grey and fuzzy messages under a cost benefit analysis framework. Such analysis technically integrates the prior information of water quality models, water quality standards, wastewater treatment costs, and potential benefits gained via in‐stream water quality improvement. While fuzzy sets are characterized based on semantic and cognitive vagueness in decision making, grey numbers can delineate measurement errors in data collection. By employing three distinct set theoretic fuzzy operators, the synergy of grey and fuzzy implications may smoothly characterize the prescribed management complexity. With the aid of genetic algorithm in the solution procedure, the modeling outputs contribute to the development of an effective waste load allocation and reduction scheme for tributaries in this subwatershed located in the lower Tseng‐Wen River Basin, South Taiwan. Research findings indicate that the inclusion of three fuzzy set theoretic operators in decision analysis may delineate different tradeoffs in decision making due to varying changes, transformations, and movements of waste load in association with land use pattern within the watershed.     

The development and application of a multilevel decision analysis model for the remediation of contaminated groundwater under uncertainty

A study was initiated which combined elements of stochastic hydrology, risk assessment, simulation modeling, cost analysis and decision making to define the optimum remediation choice(s) for a Superfund site in the southern United States. The effort focused upon the premise that groundwater remediation is inherently complex due to uncertainties in the geological matrix as well as in contaminant concentrations at points of compliance and/or exposure. The technical analyst should supply the decision maker with estimates of these uncertainties as well as the cost penalties required to reduce them to manageable levels. Monte Carlo transport modeling was employed to define the probability of contaminant excursions from the site, while geostatistical simulation identified a joint plume configuration and its attendant probability. Bayesian modeling was used to define the worth of additional data. These individual components were combined within a Decision Model to identify optimum remediation configurations for a given levels of risk tolerance which could be supplied by the decision maker or affected community. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to define ranges over which the decision would not be affected by variation in the respective decision parameter.     

COOPERATIVE MODELING: BUILDING BRIDGES BETWEEN SCIENCE AND THE PUBLIC1

As freshwater resources become more scarce and water management becomes more contentious, new planning approaches are essential to maintain ecologic, economic, and social stability. One technique involves cooperative modeling in which scientists and stakeholders work together to develop a computer simulation model to assist in planning efforts. In the Middle Rio Grande region of New Mexico, where water management is hotly debated, a stakeholder team used a system dynamics approach to create a computer simulation model to facilitate producing a regional plan. While the model itself continues to be valuable, the process for creating the model was also valuable in helping stakeholders jointly develop understanding of and approaches to addressing complex issues. In this paper, the authors document results from post‐project interviews designed to identify strengths and weaknesses of cooperative modeling; to determine if and how the model facilitated the planning process; and to solicit advice for others considering model aided planning. Modeling team members revealed that cooperative modeling did facilitate water planning. Interviewees suggested that other groups try to reach consensus on a guiding vision or philosophy for their project and recognize that cooperative modeling is time intensive. The authors also note that using cooperative modeling as a tool to build bridges between science and the public requires consistent communication about both the process and the product.     

PLANNERS AS A PUBLIC IN WATER RESOURCES PUBLIC PARTICIPATION PROGRAMS1

This paper suggests a number of benefits in identifying urban and regional planners as a public in public participation programs of water resources planning studies. A perspective on public participation is presented. Recent trends and developing concepts are identified: emphasis on the need to coordinate urban and regional planning activities with water resources planning, increasing system complexity, the goals and objectives orientation of planning, planning for multi-objectives, the evaluation of a broader range of alternatives, and the consideration of water alternatives as only one set of measures to further society's aspirations. One way to assist in capitalizing on these trends is to seek out participation of those in other planning efforts who are involved in planning but on a different level. Because of their intimate knowledge of an areas history, growth and development, political climate, local perceptions of needs and desires, and major problems and issues they are able to contribute a great deal of insight in making the water resources planning effort more responsive at the local level. The paper describes one of the first major efforts at working-level public-planner contact which was carried out as part of the Susquehanna River Basin Study. A regional survey team comprised of an engineer and an economist from a federal agency and a state water resources planner met informally with planners, city managers, and local planning commissions to discuss issues related to water resources and the growth and development of local areas. This effort while only part of the overall public participation program yielded a number of benefits and if expanded and refined would be a very useful experience in other studies.     

Integration of SWAT and HSPF for Simulation of Sediment Sources in Legacy Sediment‐Impacted Agricultural Watersheds

A total maximum daily load for the Chesapeake Bay requires reduction in pollutant load from sources within the Bay watersheds. The Conestoga River watershed has been identified as a major source of sediment load to the Bay. Upland loads of sediment from agriculture are a concern; however, a large proportion of the sediment load in the Conestoga River has been linked to scour of legacy sediment associated with historic millpond sites. Clarifying this distinction and identifying specific segments associated with upland vs. channel sources has important implications for future management. In order to address this important question, we combined the strengths of two widely accepted watershed management models — Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) for upland agricultural processes, and Hydrologic Simulation Program FORTRAN (HSPF) for instream fate and transport — to create a novel linked modeling system to predict sediment loading from critical sources in the watershed including upland and channel sources, and to aid in targeted implementation of management practices. The model indicates approximately 66% of the total sediment load is derived from instream sources, in agreement with other studies in the region and can be used to support identification of these channel source segments vs. upland source segments, further improving targeted management. The innovated linked SWAT‐HSPF model implemented in this study is useful for other watersheds where both upland agriculture and instream processes are important sources of sediment load.     

A VIABLE METHODOLOGY TO IMPLEMENT THE PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS1

ABSTRACT: The “principles and standards for planning water and related land resources” were made effective October 25, 1973. The document was noticeably deficient in suggestions for the necessary implementing procedures to ensure its success. Current implementing procedures are based on an incorrect premise of maximizing a single objective subject to non-quantified constraints. A successful implementation of multiple objective planning requires optimizing simultaneously several competitive goals. A system of goal programming has been developed and applied to decisionmaking situations as a test of its usefulness in planning for multiple objective water resources projects. The result is a project planning process which can be replicated for adjustments in expected resource supplies or demands to provide a tradeoff matrix between economic and environmental objectives as well as traditional functional purposes. This procedure, tested on the Cross Florida Barge Canal, is an integrated analysis of economic and environmental values which may be as effective in implementing multiple objective planning as the “Green Book” was in developing the now inappropriate benefit cost analysis.     

Assessing Public Perceptions of Computer-Based Models

Although there is a solid body of research on both collaborative decision-making and on processes using models, there is little research on general public attitudes about models and their use in making policy decisions. This project assessed opinions about computer models in general and attitudes about a specific model being used in water planning in the Middle Rio Grande Region of New Mexico, United States. More than 1000 individuals were surveyed about their perceptions of computer-based models in general. Additionally, more than 150 attendees at public meetings related to the Middle Rio Grande planning effort were surveyed about their perceptions of the specific Rio Grande-based model. The results reveal that the majority of respondents are confident in their ability to understand models and most believe that models are appropriate tools for education and for making policy decisions. Responses also reveal that trust in who develops a model is a key issue related to public support. Regarding the specific model highlighted in this project, the public revealed tremendous support for its usefulness as a public engagement tool as well as a tool to assist decision-makers in regional water planning. Although indicating broad support for models, the results do raise questions about the role of trust in using models in contentious decisions.     

Collaborative Modeling to Evaluate Water Management Scenarios in the Rio Grande Basin

This article describes the collaborative modeling process and the resulting water resources planning model developed to evaluate water management scenarios in the transboundary Rio Grande basin. The Rio Grande is a severely water stressed basin that faces numerous management challenges as it crosses numerous jurisdictional boundaries. A collaborative process was undertaken to identify and model water management scenarios to improve water supply for stakeholders, the environment, and international obligations of water delivery from Mexico to the United States. A transparent and open process of data collection, model building, and scenario development was completed by a project steering committee composed of university, nongovernmental, and governmental experts from both countries. The outcome of the process was a planning model described in this article, with data and operations that were agreed on by water planning officials in each country. Water management scenarios were created from stakeholder input and were modeled and evaluated for effectiveness with the planning model.     

AGRICULTURAL WATER MODELING AND ECONOMIC INFORMATION NEEDS UNDER THE MODEL WATER CODE1

ABSTRACT: Economic information for efficient water allocation is difficult and costly to acquire under administrative water systems evolving under the Model Water Code. One approach to obtaining more information is to use a simulator like the Florida AGWATER model. The advantage of AGWATER is the potential for realistic prediction, because it operates at the field and day levels, using detailed information for each crop and tract. Unfortunately, such simulators are complex and require large amounts of costly input data. A better solution to the information problem may be to use markets for the marketable goods associated with water, because information is inherent in such a process. This approach will allow limited modeling and management resources to be put into using water models to generate information for the goods dependent on water that are difficult to market, like wildlife services.     

PROBLEMS OF WATER RESOURCES PLANNING IN INDIA1

ABSTRACT Water resources planning in India since the First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956) has been a very important part of national development planning. However, records show that the results of such planning in the last three decades have fallen short of expectations because of various complex factors. Most of the limiting factors are administrative, political, legal, and philosophical, involving premature comprehensive planning, arbitrary selection of plan targets, administrative “red-tape,” ineffective coordination among water resources related departments, and water ownership conflicts among various states and with neighboring countries. Other constraints are related to a lack of adequate dependable data, the inadequacy of project feasibility studies, and a lack of social and political discipline necessary for adequate mobilization of financial resources.