The changing significance of different stressors after the announcement of bankruptcy: a longitudinal investigation with special emphasis on job insecurity

The author investigates the effect of job insecurity and other job stressors on the mental health of steel workers. Levels of job stress and mental health were measured seven years before and seven months after the company at which they worked had gone into receivership, a method that can be described as a quasi‐experimental field study with a sample of blue‐collar non‐supervisory male workers. Two out of four job stressors were found to be at a lower level when the second wave of research took place. Regression analyses showed that the correlation between these job stressors and psychosomatic complaints is now lower than during the first wave but that they reach the former level when job insecurity is added. Job insecurity was mainly connected to an increase in psychosomatic complaints and in anxiety. Self‐esteem, depression, and irascibility showed no important relationship to job insecurity when the variables were controlled for mental health status before the onset of job insecurity. Social support, opportunities in the labor market, and duration of contract in the company are identified as moderating the relation between mental health and job insecurity. One conclusion is that positive health effects due to reduction in the stress level may be offset by acute job insecurity. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Does job insecurity lead to impaired well‐being or vice versa? Estimation of cross‐lagged effects using latent variable modelling

Although research suggests that job insecurity is associated with impaired employee well‐being, there is insufficient empirical evidence to draw any causal inferences since most studies are cross‐sectional and thus do not control for previous levels of health symptoms. We used longitudinal questionnaire data to investigate the direction of the relationship between job insecurity and health complaints. After controlling for prior levels of mental and physical health complaints and five other variables that could potentially confound the results (gender, age, organizational tenure, family status, and education), the results of latent variable modelling showed that the cross‐lagged effect of job insecurity on mental health complaints, one year later, was significant whereas the reversed effects of mental and physical health complaints on subsequent insecurity were non‐significant. However, there was no significant cross‐lagged effect of job insecurity on physical health complaints. The results provide empirical support for the theoretical notion that job insecurity leads to health complaints, and imply that prior levels of health should be taken into consideration in order to explain the relative effect of perceived job insecurity on the physical and mental health of the workforce. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Organizational antecedents and outcomes of job insecurity: a longitudinal study in three organizations in Finland

The aim of the study was to examine perceived job insecurity and its organizational antecedents and outcomes within a one‐year time period. The study was carried out by means of questionnaires, which were responded to twice, in 1995 (Time 1) and 1996 (Time 2), by employees in three organizations: a factory, a bank, and a municipal social and health care department. The present article is based on the data of those employees (n=210) who participated in the study in both years. The results indicated that perceived job insecurity varied with gender and organization, but not with time. In particular, female employees in the bank reported a high level of job insecurity compared with men. The use of a restorative strategy by management at Time 1 decreased job insecurity at Time 2, whereas job insecurity at Time 1 weakened the quality of human relations and perceived efficiency within the organizations at Time 2. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A test of a multidimensional model of job insecurity: the case of Israeli teachers

The research reported here adopted a multidimensional approach to studying job insecurity, using Israeli teachers as a case in point. Based on two determinants of job insecurity—unionization and kibbutz affiliation—four distinct employment types were identified: unionized city teachers, unionized kibbutz members, unionized kibbutz hirees, and non-unionized personal contract teachers. The a priori job insecurity status of the four employment types matched the subjective reports of these teachers, supporting the external validity of the job insecurity scale used. The study explored the effect of job insecurity on work attitudes. Results indicated that job insecurity had an adverse effect on organizational commitment, perceived performance, perceived organizational support, intention to quit and resistance to change, supporting predictions in related literature. The results of this study have implications on the management of job insecurity in changing environments.     

Stress,coping and safety compliance in a multinational gold mining company

The primary objective of this study was to investigate the relationship of work stress, consisting of role stressors and job insecurity, with safety compliance at work. A secondary objective was to test for the possible moderating effect of individual employees’ coping behaviour between experienced work stress and job insecurity, and their safety compliance. A cross-sectional survey design was used (n?=?771). An electronic survey, with a biographical questionnaire and scales on role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, job insecurity, coping and safety compliance at work, was administered. The results indicated that specific aspects of work stress, notably role conflict, role ambiguity and quantitative job insecurity, and of coping, namely an avoidance style and changing the situation, were important in understanding safety compliance. A moderating effect of avoidance coping was also found.     

Does job insecurity threaten who you are? Introducing a social identity perspective to explain well‐being and performance consequences of job insecurity

This paper introduces a social identity perspective to job insecurity research. Worrying about becoming jobless, we argue, is detrimental because it implies an anticipated membership of a negatively evaluated group—the group of unemployed people. Job insecurity hence threatens a person's social identity as an employed person. This in turn will affect well‐being and job performance. A three‐wave survey study amongst 377 British employees supports this perspective. Persons who felt higher levels of job insecurity were more likely to report a weaker social identity as an employed person. This effect was found to be stable over time and also held against a test of reverse causality. Furthermore, social identity as an employed person influenced well‐being and in‐role job performance and mediated the effect of job insecurity on these two variables over time. Different to the expectations, social identity as an employed person and organisational proactivity were not connected. The findings deliver interesting evidence for the role of social identity as an employed person in the relationships between job insecurity and its consequences. Theoretically, this perspective illustrates the individual and group‐related nature of job insecurity and offers a novel way of connecting work situations with individual well‐being, behaviour and attitudes. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multi‐wave,multi‐variable models of job insecurity: applying different scales in studying the stability of job insecurity

The study had two specific targets: first, to examine the stability of job insecurity by utilizing three‐year longitudinal data (n = 109) collected in Finland and, second, to clarify psychometric properties of four job insecurity scales, i.e., the global scale, the importance scale, the probability scale and the powerlessness scale. The study was carried out by means of questionnaires, which were answered on three occasions. Analyses were conducted using multi‐wave, multi‐variable models which were estimated and tested via the LISREL program. Generally, the results showed that job insecurity remained relatively stable during the follow‐up period, although there were some variations in the stability as well as in the psychometric properties of the four job insecurity scales examined. More specifically, three of the scales studied showed good psychometric properties, whereas the probability scale could not be estimated longitudinally. Furthermore, working organization and time had effects on the level of job insecurity measured via the different scales. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job embeddedness and voluntary turnover in the face of job insecurity

Two important contributions to the understanding of voluntary turnover are the ideas that employees become embedded in a net or web of restraining forces on- and off-the-job and that they experience varying degrees of control and desire that yield proximal withdrawal states explaining turnover motivations. We build on these ideas in two multi-wave studies to study job insecurity, one of the most common work stressors and top concerns among employees around the world. Study 1 demonstrates that job search mediates the positive relationship between job insecurity and voluntary turnover, and that employees higher in on-the-job embeddedness are less likely to search for jobs despite job insecurity. Study 2 demonstrates that turnover intention mediates the positive relationship between job insecurity and voluntary turnover, and that employees higher in on-the-job embeddedness are less likely to contemplate quitting despite job insecurity. However, off-the-job embeddedness had opposite interactive effects, exacerbating the relationship of job insecurity with turnover.     

Determinants of delegation and consultation by managers

Few studies have identified determinants of delegation and consultation. To investigate this question further, we surveyed managers and subordinates in two samples and interviewed managers individually or in focus groups. The use of delegation and consultation with individual subordinates was determined in part by characteristics of the subordinates and the manager–subordinate relationship. More delegation was used for a subordinate who was competent, shared the leader's task objectives, had worked longer for the manager, was a supervisor also, and had a favorable exchange relationship with the manager. Consultation with a subordinate was predicted by goal congruence, subordinate job level, and quality of the leader–member exchange relationship. The managers acknowledged that developing subordinates and empowering them to do their work were important reasons for delegation, but many managers were reluctant to give up control over important decisions or assign an important task to an inexperienced subordinate. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Differences in the importance of work outcomes between full-time and part-time hospital employees

This study examined differences in the importance of work outcomes between full-time and part-time hospital employees in a sample drawn from five western hospitals (N = 1,876). Work status was operationalized by classifying respondents into four categories based on hours worked per week. Exploratory factor analysis showed that work outcomes may be classified as extrinsic (pay and fringe benefits) and instrinsic (being informed about the job, participating in decision-making, and doing the job well). Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that this two-factor structure fits the data well for all four work status categories although the factor loadings differed across categories. Multivariate analyses of variance and covariance indicated that statistically significant differences in the importance of extrinsic and intrinsic outcomes exist for full-time and part-time employees and that these differences persist when various social and demographic variables are held constant. Employees who work fewer hours per week tend to assign less importance to the work outcomes measured in this study. The results suggest that theoretical models of variables such as job satisfaction should take into account work status differences in the importance of work-related outcomes. In addition, managers may find that workers respond to different reward structures depending on the degree of their involvement in the organization.     

Implications of job insecurity perceptions and job insecurity responses for psychological well-being,turnover intentions and reported risk behavior

This study aimed to test whether cognitively appraised level of job insecurity (job insecurity perceptions) and evaluative responses to a perceived level of job insecurity (job insecurity dissatisfaction and job insecurity behaviors) could relate differently to employee mental well-being, turnover intentions and on-the-job risk behavior. The significance of demographic characteristics (gender and age) as well as the implications of attitudinal variables (job satisfaction, job motivation and organizational commitment) and for the dependent variables was taken into account. Based on data from a self-completion questionnaire survey carried out among a representative sample of the Norwegian adult population (N = 260) results indicated that only job insecurity behaviors were indirectly related to turnover intentions and risk behavior via their impact on psychological well-being. The relative importance of the job insecurity dimensions for the dependent variables are discussed, as well as theoretical and practical implications.     

Leader–member exchange: Moderating the health and safety outcomes of job insecurity

IntroductionJob insecurity has been repeatedly linked with poor employee health and safety outcomes. Although research on high quality leader–member exchange (LMX) has demonstrated many beneficial effects, no research to date has examined the extent to which positive LMX might attenuate those adverse health and safety-related consequences of job insecurity. The current study extends research in this area by specifically examining the buffering impact of LMX on the relationship between job insecurity and safety knowledge, reported accidents, and physical health conditions. Furthermore, the study also examines whether positive LMX mitigates the typically seen negative impact of job insecurity on supervisor satisfaction.MethodsThe hypotheses were tested using survey data collected from 212 employees of a mine located in southwestern United States.ResultsAs predicted, job insecurity was related to lower levels of supervisor satisfaction, more health ailments, and more workplace accidents, and was marginally related to lower levels of safety knowledge. Results indicated that LMX significantly attenuated these observed relationships.ConclusionsThe quality of the dyadic relationship between supervisor and subordinate has a significant impact on the extent to which job insecurity is associated with adverse health and safety outcomes.Practical applicationsPractical implications for supervisor behavior and developing high quality LMX are discussed in light of today's pervasive job insecurity.     

工作不安全感对安全绩效的影响 ——基于某大型电力公司的实证研究

由于安全问题备受关注,采用问卷研究法,通过构建调节—中介模型探讨工作不安全感影响员工安全绩效的机制。对某大型电力公司329位员工进行问卷调查后发现,员工的工作满意感中工作不安全感对员工安全绩效的消极影响,情绪智力通过调节工作不安全感与工作满意感的关系削弱了工作不安全感对安全绩效的消极作用,即当组织变革给员工带来工作不安全感时,高情绪智力的个体会通过有效的情绪管理减少工作不满意感,进而缓冲工作不安全感对安全绩效的影响,而低情绪智力的个体会过于情绪化,使得工作不安全感显著影响工作满意感,进而使员工的安全绩效受到影响。     

Targeted workplace incivility: The roles of belongingness,embarrassment, and power

Research to date has largely been unclear about whether a single perpetrator is sufficient to instigate the well‐documented negative consequences of workplace incivility. In the current research, we examine the extent to which perceived belongingness and embarrassment mediate the relationship between incivility from a single perpetrator and two important outcomes (job insecurity and somatic symptoms), and the extent to which the perpetrator's power moderates these relationships. Across two studies using different methods, we find that incidents of single perpetrator incivility are associated with target feelings of isolation and embarrassment, which in turn relate to targets' perceived job insecurity and somatic symptoms (Studies 1 and 2) both the same day and three days later (Study 2). Moreover, we find that perpetrator power moderates the relationship between incivility and embarrassment, such that targets are more embarrassed when the perpetrator is powerful. Implications for theory and practice are discussed. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Linking work experiences to facets of marital functioning

Few studies on the interaction between work experiences and family functioning have focused on specific aspects of work and the family, nor have many studies identified links in the process whereby work affects the family. A four-stage model of how role ambiguity, role conflict, job insecurity and job satisfaction affect three aspects of marital functioning (sexual satisfaction, psychological aggression and general marital satisfaction) was tested. The two mediator variables linking work experiences and marital functioning were concentration difficulties and depression. In a sample of 190 employed married people the model fit the data. The three work stressors (ambiguity, conflict and job insecurity) affected all three aspects of marital functioning via concentration and depression, and the relationship between job satisfaction and marital functioning was mediated by depression.     

The antecedents and consequences of underemployment among expatriates

While most previous research has studied underemployment among laid‐off workers or new college graduates in domestic settings, this study investigates underemployment among managers in overseas assignments. Using data from 268 expatriates from six Fortune 500 multinational firms, the results here suggest that several important job‐ and organizational‐level factors may contribute to underemployment among expatriates: hierarchical job level, assignment tenure, the extent to which expatriates have specific projects to complete, the degree of free choice in the decision to go overseas, the amount of on‐site mentoring, and the strategic importance of the overseas site. In contrast to previous research, then, the present study suggests that many expatriates are overqualified, as well as underqualified, for their overseas assignments. Moreover, this underemployment is negatively related to expatriates' job attitudes, general mental health, and self‐reported job performance. In addition, mediated regression analyses revealed that underemployment is an important intervening link between antecedent and outcome variables. The implications of the results for future theory development, empirical research, and management practice on underemployment are discussed as well. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Occupational stress among health care workers: A test of the job demands-control model

Models of occupational stress have often failed to make explicit the variable of control over the environment, as well as the role of job socialization in shaping personality characteristics and coping behaviours. This neglect has helped maintain the focus of stress reduction interventions on the individual. A new model of occupational stress developed by Robert Karasek incorporates control and socialization effects and has successfully predicted the development of heart disease and psychological strain. A survey instrument derived from the model was distributed to 771 hospital and nursing home employees in New Jersey, and 289 (37.5 per cent) were returned. Respondents did not significantly differ from non-respondents by age, sex, job tenure, union membership status, job satisfaction, job perceptions and attitude towards employer and union. The results support the hypothesis that reported job strain (job dissatisfaction, depression, psychosomatic symptoms) and burnout is significantly higher in jobs that combine high workload demands with low decision latitude. This association remained significant after controlling for age, sex, education, marital status, children, hours worked per week and shift worked. Other job characteristics (job insecurity, physical exertion, social support, hazard exposure) were also associated with strain and burnout. The survey instrument also identified high strain jobtitles in the surveyed workplaces. The results are discussed in relation to directions for future research, research on stress in nursing, and approaches to stress reduction.     

工作不安全感、工作生活质量与安全行为

基于工作不安全感的视角,分析员工不安全行为的影响因素。围绕这一中心问题,设计了包含工作不安全感、工作生活质量和安全行为的调查问卷,并向大型施工企业(集团)发放。利用回收问卷的数据,采用中介效应法对工作不安全感、工作生活质量和不安全行为之间的相关关系进行了实证分析。问卷结果显示:员工的工作不安全感越高,对工作生活质量的感知越低,对个体安全行为的影响作用也就越大。该结论丰富了员工安全行为的研究视角,为施工企业安全生产管理实践提供了参考。     

Incentive compensation as an injurious condition of work: A study of labelling

A recursive causal model is presented in which individual and work factors are hypothesized to be predictive of workers' labelling an incentive compensation program as potentially injurious to their well-being. The individual factors include the dispositional variable, negative affectivity, and financial needs and resources. The work factors consist of prior incentive compensation, experienced job insecurity, and experienced control. The model was tested using questionnaire responses of 165 managers and professionals. While it was found that the overall model did not fit the data that well, negative affectivity was found to be positively associated and experienced control negatively associated with the incentive compensation program being labelled negatively. The somewhat surprising finding that financial needs and resources were not found to be significantly associated with labelling is discussed. The importance of disposition and experienced control for the labelling of potentially threatening or harmful job conditions as well as some hypothesized antecedents of control also are discussed.     

I can't get no job satisfaction: Meta‐analysis comparing permanent and contingent workers

Scholars are concerned that contingent workers experience more adverse psychological job outcomes than permanent employees, but the empirical work on job satisfaction is mixed. The purpose of this study was to quantitatively summarize the potential mean differences in job satisfaction between contingent workers and permanent employees. Meta‐analytic results from 72 primary studies (N = 237 856) suggest that compared with permanent employees, contingent workers experience lower job satisfaction (d = ?0.21); but when outlying primary studies are removed, the mean difference is small but significant (d = ?0.06). Methodological artifacts explain small but significant differences in job satisfaction but do not account for much variance. Moderator analyses support previous findings that contingent workers are not a homogeneous group; some contingent workers (e.g., agency workers) experience lower job satisfaction than permanent employees, whereas the job satisfaction of other contingent workers (e.g., contractors) is similar to permanent employees. The findings have implications for increasing our understanding of job satisfaction by showing that job satisfaction appears to vary by employment type. Practical implications suggest that extending human resource practices to contingent workers may increase their job satisfaction, which has been shown to influence job performance, citizenship behaviors, and turnover. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.