National assessment of coastal vulnerability to sea-level rise for the Chinese coast

Sea-level rise as a result of climate change increases inundation and erosion, which are affected by a complex interplay of physical environmental parameters at the coast. China’s coast is vulnerable to accelerated sea-level rise and associated coastal flooding because of physical and socio-economical factors such as its low topography, highly developed economy, and highly dense population. To identify vulnerable sections of the coast, this paper presents a national assessment of the vulnerability of the Chinese coast using 8 physical variables: sea-level rise, coastal geomorphology, elevation, slope, shoreline erosion, land use, mean tide range, and mean wave height. A coastal vulnerability index was calculated by integrating the differentially weighted rank values of the 8 variables, based on which the coastline is segmented into 4 classes. The results show that 3% of the 18,000-km-long Chinese coast is very highly vulnerable, 29% is highly vulnerable, 58% is moderately vulnerable, and 10% is in the low-vulnerable class. Findings further reveal that large amounts of land and population will be vulnerable to inundation by coastal flooding from sea level rise and storm surge. Finally, some suggestions are presented for decision makers and other concerned stakeholders to develop appropriate coastal zone management and mitigation measures.     

Interactions between water and land in The Netherlands

The Netherlands are one of the most densely populated coastal countries in the world and there is only limited space for living, working, transport and recreation, while there is also the need to preserve and expand valuable natural habitats. In order to solve many existing and future conflicts of interest, and in order to create ‘added value’, strategies are developed to optimize the use of water-land systems. The principle of ‘building with nature’ is applied in order to integrate land in sea and water in land in such a way that future generations will be able to use coastal resources in a sustainable way, including a minimal effort to maintain the coastline and the promotion of a multiple-use system. The concept of Integrated multifunctional sustainable coastal zone development is introduced. This concept deals with a balanced approach to the lack of space for present and future coastal uses in relation to each other, to the hinterland, and to the sea. Flexible master plans are developed, taking into account many functions of the coastal zone, and facilitating adaptation to future developments—e.g. impacts of climate change and relative sea level rise. In this regard increasing the flexibility of the coastal zone is of vital importance. Large-scale coastal land reclamations in The Netherlands are dealt with, based on two different principles: (1) polder systems (low lying land reclamations surrounded and protected by dikes), (2) systems of ‘building with nature’—land reclamation protected by man-made foreshores, beaches and dunes. In the latter type new flexible dynamic-equilibrium coasts are created for many functions, while coastal vulnerability is reduced and a flexible coast is developed.     

Geomorphology as an indicator of the biophysical vulnerability of estuaries to coastal and flood hazards in a changing climate

Climate change is increasing the need to characterise the vulnerability of coastal landscapes to coastal and flood hazards that result in erosion and inundation. Indices, such as the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI), have emerged as useful tools with which coastal managers can prioritise areas for further detailed assessment of vulnerability, risk, resilience and adaptation options. Approaches, such as the use of an index, efficiently characterise the vulnerability of linear, one-dimensional coastal features such as coastlines; however, they do not capture variability in coastal processes affecting more complex, non-linear features, such as estuaries, or interactive effects of coastal processes between linear (e.g. coastlines) and non-linear (e.g. estuaries) landforms. We present an approach that uses geomorphology to indicate biophysical vulnerability of estuaries to coastal and flood hazards. The approach is applied to the South Coast of NSW; a wave-dominated coastline of approximately 400 km length that contains more than 100 estuaries. We demonstrate the simplicity of the approach and its utility in identifying areas requiring higher resolution assessments. Although this approach does not include socio-economic factors, we demonstrate the capacity to incorporate socio-economic components of vulnerability using regional land use mapping. We infer that the most vulnerable estuaries are characterised by large catchment areas, broad estuarine valleys, mature stages of infill, or entrances oriented towards the prevailing wave direction. The area below 15 m elevation was identified as a robust indicator of the total area of vulnerability within a catchment. This approach can be applied to one-dimensional and more complex two-dimensional landscapes, such as estuaries; integrates varying sea-level rise projections; and incorporates a wider range of hazards that operate in the coastal zone.     

Assessing vulnerability to sea-level rise using a coastal sensitivity index: a case study from southeast Australia

Many of the world’s coasts appear vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and sea-level rise. This paper assesses the application of a coastal sensitivity index (CSI) to the Illawarra coast, a relatively well-studied shoreline in southeast Australia. Nine variables, namely (a) rock type, (b) coastal slope (c) geomorphology (d) barrier type (e) shoreline exposure (f) shoreline change (g) relative sea-level rise (h) mean wave height and (j) mean tide range, were adopted in calculation of the CSI (the square root of the product of the ranked variables divided by the number of variables). Two new variables, shoreline exposure and barrier type, were trialled in this analysis and the extent to which these increased the discriminatory power of the index was assessed. Four iterations of the CSI were undertaken using different combinations of ranked variables for each of 105 cells in a grid template, and the index values derived were displayed based on quartiles, indicating sections of coast with very high, high, moderate and low sensitivity. Increasing the number of variables increased the discriminatory power of the index, but the broad pattern and the rank order were very similar for each of the iterations. Rocky and cliffed sections of coast are least sensitive whereas sandy beaches backed by low plains or dunes record the highest sensitivity. It is difficult to determine shoreline change on this coast, because individual storms result in substantial erosion of beaches, but there are prolonged subsequent periods of accretion and foredune rebuilding. Consequently this variable is not a good indicator of shoreline sensitivity and the index is unlikely to provide a clear basis for forecasting future recession of beaches. The results of this study provide a framework for coastal managers and planners to prioritize efforts to enhance the resilience or consider adaptation measures in the coastal zone within a study region. Sensitivity of the coast if considered in conjunction with other social factors may be an input into broader assessments of the overall vulnerability of coasts and their communities.     

江苏沿海地区海洋灾害类型及其防治探讨

根据江苏沿海地区的地质地貌及气候的特点,综合分析了危害江苏沿海的海洋灾害类型,主要有海洋地质灾害、气候灾害和生物灾害等三种类型。地质灾害主要包括海岸侵蚀、海岸坍塌、和海平面上升;气候灾害主要包括台风风暴潮;生物灾害主要包括赤潮、湿地滩涂面积缩小等。提出相应的防治措施:(1)加强对海岸带地质背景和地质灾害研究,应用GIS和RS等先进技术建立海洋灾害信息系统;(2)加强海防工程建设,加高海堤提高质量,以防御灾害性海浪、风暴潮等侵袭;(3)应用生态学原理,建立沿海生态防护网,增强对风暴潮抵御能力保护沿海湿地资源;(4)加强对海洋灾害及防御知识的教育和对防灾减灾的管理等。     

Developments in dutch coastline management: Conclusions from the second governmental coastal report

In 1990 the Dutch government decided to stop any further long-term landward retreat of the coastline. This policy choice for a ‘dynamic preservation’ is primarily aimed at safety against flooding and at sustainable preservation of the values and interests concerning the dunes and beaches. Five years later, a first overview of the benefits and bottlenecks of the new coastal defence policy could be presented, which was published in the second governmental coastal report ‘Kustbalans 1995’ (coastal balance 1995). This consists of three elements: (1) evaluation of the implementation of ‘dynamic preservation’, (2) the consequences of several natural and anthropogenic developments in the coastal zone and (3) integrated coastal zone management. The present report describes experiences of Dutch coastline management and summarizes the main conclusions of the second governmental report. The overall conclusion of the evaluation study is that the 1990 choice for ‘dynamic preservation’ was right. Sand supply is an effective method of coastline maintenance, which also serves functional uses in the beach and dune area. However, nearly a doubling of the supply volume is necessary to compensate for sand losses in the coastal zone. A more integrated management of the coastal zone is necessary to find an equilibrium between the interests of socio-economic development and the maintenance of a natural, dynamic system.     

Developments in Dutch coastline management: Conclusions from the second governmental coastal report

In 1990 the Dutch government decided to stop any further long-term landward retreat of the coastline. This policy choice for a ‘dynamic preservation’ is primarily aimed at safety against flooding and at sustainable preservation of the values and interests concerning the dunes and beaches. Five years later, a first overview of the benefits and bottlenecks of the new coastal defence policy could be presented, which was published in the second governmental coastal report ‘Kustbalans 1995’ (coastal balance 1995). This consists of three elements: (1) evaluation of the implementation of ‘dynamic preservation’, (2) the consequences of several natural and anthropogenic developments in the coastal zone and (3) integrated coastal zone management. The present report describes experiences of Dutch coastline management and summarizes the main conclusions of the second governmental report. The overall conclusion of the evaluation study is that the 1990 choice for ‘dynamic preservation’ was right. Sand supply is an effective method of coastline maintenance, which also serves functional uses in the beach and dune area. However, nearly a doubling of the supply volume is necessary to compensate for sand losses in the coastal zone. A more integrated management of the coastal zone is necessary to find an equilibrium between the interests of socio-economic development and the maintenance of a natural, dynamic system.     

The assessment of the coastal vulnerability and exposure degree of Gran Canaria Island (Spain) with a focus on the coastal risk of Las Canteras Beach in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria

The Coastal Vulnerability and Exposure Degree (CVED) of the Gran Canaria Island and the coastal risk of Playa de Las Canteras (Las Palmas de G.C.) have been assessed by means of a GIS analysis. The evaluation of coastal vulnerability (H) has been performed by using two different levels of analysis: the first one regarding the entire Island (Coastal Vulnerability Index method - CVI), the second one regarding specifically Las Canteras Beach, selected for its socio-economic importance (Coastal Vulnerability Assessment method - CVA). The application of the CVI method, based on geologic-geomorphologic and meteomarine data easily available, has allowed the regional scale assessment of coastal vulnerability (H) along the Gran Canaria coastline and, therefore, the individuation of more critical coast stretches deserving further analysis. The application of the CVA method, based on more specific morphologic-sedimentary beach features that allow to consider both the beach retreat due to storm surge and the coastal inundation due to run-up on the beach, has provided a large scale detail on the coastal vulnerability of Las Canteras Beach. Socio-economic and damage indexes have been determined for the 15 coastal municipalities included in the study area and, by means of the resulting matrix product, the degree of exposure (E_x) along the Gran Canaria coast has been assessed. Finally, the combination of coastal vulnerability and exposure levels has allowed to obtain the Coastal Vulnerability and Exposure Degree (CVED) for the entire Island and the risk levels that characterize specifically Las Canteras Beach. Major results in terms of CVED highlight prevailing low vulnerability and exposure levels along the western coast, and overall high vulnerability and exposure levels along the eastern coast, from Las Palmas de G.C. to San Bartolomé de Tirajana. The focus made on Playa de Las Canteras has allowed to identify the areas characterized by medium and high risk levels that represent approximately one third (940 m) of the entire beach and are located in its central part. The used two-level analysis approach has proved its efficiency by highlighting the degree of coastal vulnerability along the study coast and, especially, more critical coast stretches (CVI method) such as the Playa de Las Canteras that can be successfully analysed with the CVA approach allowing for a large-scale assessment of risk aspects, essential for a correct definition of priority management strategies. Results obtained with the present study, along with the awareness of the increasing phenomena of coastal erosion and marine flooding arising on the mid-long term due to the effects of global climate change, highlight the need for the competent public administrations of Gran Canaria to develop a strategic approach to coastal management and sustainable development that considers as a whole socio-economic values and natural resources, coastal vulnerability and exposure degree, and risk aspects.     

Sea-level rise and coastal vulnerability: an assessment of Andhra Pradesh coast,India through remote sensing and GIS

The eustatic sea-level rise due to global warming is predicted to be about 18 to 59 cm by the 2100 (IPCC 2007), which necessitates identification and protection of vulnerable sections of coasts. Assessment of vulnerability level of Andhra Pradesh (AP) coast as an example is demonstrated in this study using five physical variables, namely coastal geomorphology, coastal slope, shoreline change, mean spring tide range, and significant wave height. A coastal vulnerability index was prepared by integrating the differentially weighted rank values of the five variables, based on which the coastline is segmented into low-, moderate-, high-, and very high risk categories. About 43% of the 1,030-km-long AP coast is under very high-risk, followed by another 35% under high-risk if the sea level rises by ~0.6 m displacing more than 1.29 million people living within 2.0 m elevation in 282 villages in the region.     

Unlocking ecosystem based adaptation opportunities in coastal Bangladesh

Coastal ecosystems generate diverse services, such as protection, production of food, climate regulation and recreation across the globe. These services are vital for extremely vulnerable coastal areas for enhancing present and future adaptation capacity under changing climate. Bangladesh has long coastline which provides opportunities to large population for multiple resource uses; and threats from extreme natural disasters. The CBACC-Coastal Afforestation is the priority initiative of Bangladesh NAPA that has come in actions under first LDCF adaptation project. The project has focused to reduce climatic vulnerability through enhancing resilience of coastal forests and adaptive capacity of communities. With a total of 6,100 ha of new mangrove plantation and introducing 10 important mangrove species in existing monoculture areas, the project increased protective and carbon rich forest coverage, and also functional capacity of coastal vegetation to adapt to current and future climatic shocks. Concurrently, the project developed co-benefit regime for community based adaptation through innovating integrated land uses for livelihoods of adjacent households. A new land use model (Forest, Fish and Fruit-Triple F) has been implemented to restore fallow coastal lands into community based livelihood adaptation practices. The Triple F practice has reduced inundation and salinity risks and freshwater scarcity in cultivation of agricultural crops and fish. The rational land uses improved household adaptation capacity of landless households through short-, mid- and long-term income generation. The project lesson has further focus to justify the land use innovation for harnessing potential opportunities of ecosystem based adaptation in coastal Bangladesh.     

Assessment of shoreline changes over the Northern Tamil Nadu Coast,South India using WebGIS techniques

Coastal zone is often vulnerable to natural hazards such as cyclones, storm surges, tsunamis, erosion, accretion, and coastal flooding; and man-made hazards like ports, jetties, seawalls, breakwaters, and groins. These disasters are frequently affecting the shorelines, beaches, and headlands that lead to loss of human life, properties, and natural ecosystems. To prevent further loss in the coastal zone and to conserve the existing natural resources, it is important to map and monitor vulnerable shorelines at frequent time intervals. The current study, conducted over the Northern TN (Tamil Nadu) coast of India, is highly dynamic due to its nature of coast and shoreline changes. The temporal remote sensing data and Survey of India (SOI) topographic maps over the period of 40 years (i.e., 1976–2016) were used to capture shorelines and then the erosion and accretion from the shorelines were assessed by performing the overlay analysis. These geospatial datasets of shorelines were incorporated into WebGIS platform, which was developed and demonstrated using open source software. This latest WebGIS technology allows users to store a large volume of geospatial datasets in the server and access through internet with a web browser that lead to manipulation, visualization, interaction, and dissemination. The results revealed that there were 61 layers, which include district-wise shorelines, erosion, and accretion for Tiruvallur, Chennai, and Kanchipuram. These geospatial datasets in WebGIS showed that the dynamism on the morphological structure of the shorelines, over the Northern TN lost 1,925 ha and gained 1,578 ha due to erosion and accretion, respectively. It is reported that in this study spatial reduction in the coastline may be attributed to natural and anthropogenic activities. However, this research will be useful for various stakeholders, including coastal management authorities to formulate policies and to regulate the coastal development activities.     

Seaward coastal defence: limitations and possibilities

In The Netherlands shoreline retreat is actively counteracted, mostly by means of beach nourishment in which some allowance is made for natural fluctuations. For some parts of the coast, however, a more active socalled ‘seaward coastal defence strategy’ might be more profitable. This applies to coasts with a small dune ridge subject to severe erosion. According to this strategy the morphological system is influenced in such a way that erosion is prevented, which will result in a stable or even an accretion coastline. The effectiveness of the seaward coastal defence strategy has to be compared with maintenance by beach nourishment. The effects on the morphological system, the environment and other interests must also be analysed. Several seaward solutions are possible. In order to gain more insight into the behaviour of these solutions, comparative pilot studies have been executed for the most vulnerable locations. This paper gives an overview of the main conclusions of the pilot studies in comparison with sand nourishment, the main coastal defence measure.     

A ‘coastal-hazard GIS’ for Sri Lanka

Following the 2004 tsunami disaster in Sri Lanka, it was apparent that mapping the coast’s vulnerability was essential for future protection of the local populations. We therefore developed a prototype ‘Coastal-hazard GIS’ for Sri Lanka so as to provide an effective tool for decision makers to limit the impact of natural coastal hazards such as sea level rise, tsunamis, storm surges and coastal erosion, and thus protect the exposed assets (population, property, settlements, communications networks, etc.). The prototype was developed on a pilot site in Galle through building up homogeneous data on the land/sea interface from studies conducted on the exposure of the coastal populations, the aim being to enable an evaluation of the hazards combined with the vulnerability and thus an analysis of the risks. Coastal risk scenarios are developed so as to estimate the impacts and consequences of an event (tsunami, storm, etc.) on the assets, the principle behind this being that if, in general, the coastal hazard cannot be decreased, then a better knowledge of it through simulation should make it possible to limit the vulnerability and thus the risk. The Coastal-hazard GIS will also provide a planning tool in terms of locating new settlements, expanding urban areas, siting coastal protection works, etc.     

A GIS-based vulnerability assessment of coastal natural hazards,state of Pará, Brazil

Studies carried out in the NE coastal zone of the State of Pará (Brazil) have recorded, in the last 25 years, numerous evidence of natural impacts of the flood and erosion processes. As a consequence, diverse strategies and measures of population adaptation have been implemented but with limited success. Therefore, in order to subsidize the Coastal Zone Management Program of Pará, this paper aims to identify, assess and classify natural and socio-economic vulnerabilities of this coastal zone by means of a Geographical Information Systems (GIS)-based composite coastal vulnerability index (CVI). In spite of the data problems and shortcomings, using ESRI’s Arcview 3.2 program, the CVI score, to classify, weight and combine a number of 16 separate natural and socio-economic variables to create a single indicator provides a reliable measure of differences (5 classes) among regions and communities that are exposed to similar ranges of hazards. The results are presented in three maps referred to as Natural, Socioeconomic and Total Vulnerability. The confidence associated with the results obtained, the need to utilize another variables, and to frequently update the ones used already were analyzed and discussed.     

Coastal directories and beyond: providing multidisciplinary coastal zone resource information for resource management

Baseline resource information in an easily accessible form is a vital starting point for developing coastal zone management. On behalf of a wide-ranging group of organizations involved in the management of the U.K. maritime zone, the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) is compiling a series of 16 regional volumes. The volumes contain multi-disciplinary coastal zone resource information arranged in ten chapters under the general title ‘Coasts and Seas of the UK’. These volumes form part of a series of paper and electronic publications of coastal information being produced by JNCC’s Coastal Directories Project and are designed to meet the needs of planners and all others involved in decision-making and management of the coast.     

Long term and short term coastal line changes of the Eastern Gulf of Finland. Problems of coastal erosion

Traditionally the coastal zone of the easternmost (Russian) part of the Gulf of Finland has not been considered as an area of active litho- and morphodynamics, but a recent study has shown that the easternmost part of the coastal zone suffers from erosion. Within some coastal segments the shoreline recession rate reaches 2 ?C 2.5?m/year. As well as determining the hydrodynamic reasons for recent erosion acceleration, important geological and geomorphic features of coastal zone which influenced the lithodynamics were established. The Kurortny District of St.Petersburg is located along the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland to the west of the St. Petersburg Flood Protection Facility. It has special importance as a unique recreation zone of the North-West of Russia. Coastal erosion is one of the most serious problems of the area. The analysis of historical materials, archive aerial photographs and modern high-resolution satellite images have shown that advancing parts of coast are almost non-existant with most sections of the coast being eroded and further retreating. Field monitoring between 2004 and 2007 showed intense damage to sandy beaches during autumn and winter storms and progressive erosion of the dunes system. Among the most important natural reasons for the erosion processes are that the coastline is open to storm waves induced by westerly and south-westerly winds, the geological structure of coastal area (easily eroded Quaternary deposits) and a sediment deficit. In some areas sediment loss was the result of the submarine coastal slope morphology (a steep slope of a narrow submarine terrace within the area of sediment drift discharge), with erosion of an alongshore submarine sandy terrace and erosion runnels at the depth 8?C12?m. The situation becomes worse due to anthropogenic impact. The southern coastal zone dynamics are also very active. According to an aerial and satellite photos analysis from 1975?C1976 to 1989?C1990, sandy beaches to the west of Lebyazhye village were eroded up to 30?m, and near Bolshaya Izora village up to 70?m. The comparison of coastine GPSsurvey with old nautical and topographic charts published in the 1980s shows the considerable change.     

Spatial assessment of sea level rise on Martinique’s coastal zone and analysis of planning frameworks for adaptation

Accelerated sea level rise and hurricanes are increasingly influencing human coastal activities. With respect to the projected continuation of accelerated sea level rise and global warming one must count with additional expenses for adaptation strategies along the coasts. On the mountainous island Martinique the majority of settlements are situated along the coast almost at sea level. But potential rises in sea level and its impacts are not addressed in coastal management, even though saltwater intrusion and coastal erosion with increasing offshore loss of sediment are locally already a severe problem. At a sea level rise of 50 cm, one fourth of Martinique’s coastline will be affected by erosion and one fifth of the islands surface will have high probability to get flooded during coastal hazards. This is a growth of 5% of the impact area in comparison to present conditions. This article analyses potential adaptation strategies and argues that the development of a coastal zone management plan considering sea level rise and its impact area is of utmost importance. Empirical assessment models in combination with spatial analysis are useful in obtaining statements about coastal impacts concerning sea level rise. This paper sees itself as recommendation of action not only for Martinique.

Coastal community resilience: analysis of resilient elements in 3 districts of Tamil Nadu State, India

India has a long coastline of about 7,517 km. with 20% occupying the coastal area. Due to increase in population; people have been exploring the possibility of developmental opportunities in the coastal areas. Tsunami in 2004 was another unexpected natural catastrophe which badly affected many South Indian coastal states especially the state of Tamil Nadu. Coastal communities here are increasingly at risk from many chronic and episodic coastal hazards which threaten the health and stability of coastal ecosystems and communities. The degradation of the coastal environment from chronic human-induced actions threaten food security, livelihoods, the overall economic development and well being of coastal communities. Disasters big or small affecting the coastal communities are reminders that, coastal communities are not resilient to normally recurring hazards. This fact has raised the question of developing community resilience since the most effective approach to reducing the long-term impact of coastal hazards would be to enhance capacities of coastal communities through initiatives which are aimed at ensuring a sustainable recovery in the aftermath of a disaster as well as reducing people’s vulnerability to these disasters. Eight elements of resilience i.e., Governance, Coastal Resource Management, Land Use and Structural Design, Society and Economy, Risk Knowledge, Warning and Evacuation, Emergency Response and Disaster Recovery have been identified which are considered essential to reduce risk from coastal hazards, accelerate recovery from disaster events, and adapt to changing conditions by the affected community. In this paper, all the eight resilience elements have been examined with respect to vulnerability and capacity assessment in selected Tsunami (2004) affected districts in the state of Tamil Nadu, India in order to identify the extent of resilience.     

Coastwatch UK—a public participation survey

Education and public participation are recognized as important elements of coastal zone management. The current paper describes the Uk’s largest public participation survey concerned with coastal issues. Coastwatch UK involves thousands of volunteers in an annual survey of the coastline. The project has several aims—primarily to provide an insight into the major problems and threats to the coastline and, through the involvement of volunteers, to raise public awareness and aid environmental education at all levels.