SOCIAL GOALS AND EVALUATION OF RESOURCE COMMITMENTS1

ABSTRACT The field of water resources has become increasingly aware of public demands for evaluating alternative project commitments that consider environmental and social objectives in addition to traditional economic criteria. This has led to endeavors to identify the full array of social goals in Water Resources Council Special Task Force reports as well as in research funded through the Office of Water Resources Research and other agencies. It seems appropriate, however, to consider efforts already completed or currently underway in the social science disciplines, professional fields, and national commissions not affiliated with water resource interests. This report identifies and discusses major efforts to identify social goals as a logical input in evaluation procedures highlighted by Water Resources Council Special Task Force reports. The framework of the study was its contribution as background material for the Western Regional Social Goals Project funded by the Office of Water Resources Research of the Department of the Interior.     

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY IMPACTS OF A WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT1

ABSTRACT: At a time in history when water resource development in the United States is being condemned as both economically inefficient and an environmental disaster, perhaps economists need to look back at previous development to see what the fruits of water development (be they sweet or sour) have been. The Boise Project of south-western Idaho is 70 years old and to some people it represents a gross error in resource use, while to others it represents a means of livelihood and well being. A recent research project at the University of Idaho attempted to measure not only the direct economic income benefits of the project (from irrigation), but also the indirect or secondary income benefits (from the food processing industry). Periodic regional input-output tables were constructed to assess the income generated from irrigation and food processing over the period from 1946 to 1970. Input-output analysis allowed researchers to evaluate the direct and indirect impacts of both the irrigation sector and the food processing sector and to compare their growth over time.     

STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT AND SOCIAL CAPITAL: KEYS TO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT SUCCESS IN ALABAMA1

ABSTRACT: Forces driving the initiation of watershed management activities in Alabama have ranged from top-down, agency-led initiatives to bottom-up, citizen-led initiatives. A number of watershed projects in Alabama were examined including three NPS projects funded by U.S. EPA grants and a more comprehensive locally-initiated watershed management authority. Watershed projects were categorized into four different models. Factors which produced significant differences in the development and utilization of social capital and local capacities for watershed management were investigated. The success of watershed management initiatives was examined qualitatively and appears to correlate with a number of social factors. These factors include the extent of stakeholder involvement, the availability of social capital in the watershed, and the presence of a real or perceived water resource concern or problem. Both short term project success and the longer term prognosis for continued watershed management activities seems to depend most upon the amount of social capital in the watershed. Two major changes in resource management programs and organizations could lead to increased focus on and support for local watershed management initiatives. These are reorganization of resource management agencies around watershed units, and assignment of at least one staff person in each watershed unit to watershed management.     

THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY1

ABSTRACT: The psychosocial impact of a large water impoundment project upon members of a small farming community located within central Ohio was evaluated using a study-restudy research design. Attitudes toward selected community variables were examined during the initial stages of land acquisition and reevaluated four years later at the completion of the project. The findings revealed that fragmentation of the “social fabric” of the community did not occur. Several statistically significant differences were observed between the two data sets but the findings indicated that community residents held more positive attitudes toward their community following the development action than at the beginning of the project.     

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF WATERSHED PROJECTS - AN OVERVIEW METHODOLOGY AND APPLICATION1

ABSTRACT: Deforestation and intensive land use on a global scale has resulted in watershed deterioration and threatened municipal and irrigation reservoirs. Watershed rehabilitation programs must allocate funds to priority projects. A tool for decisionmakers is presented which provides a four-step overview economic analysis by the integration of physical and biological considerations. The overview tool is applied to a current proposed watershed project in Morocco.     

USE OF A DAM BREAK MODEL TO ASSESS FLOODING AT HADDAM NECK NUCLEAR POWER PLANT1

Because of their proximity to necessary supplies of cooling water, nuclear power plants are susceptible to riverine flooding. Greater flood hazards exist where plants are located downstream of large dams. The consequences of the Quabbin Reservoir dam failure on the Haddam Neck Nuclear Power Plant situated on the Connecticut River were investigated using a dam break flood routing model. Reasons for selecting a particular model are presented and the input assumptions for the modeling process are developed. Relevant information concerning the level of manpower involvement is presented. The findings of this analysis demonstrate that the plant is adequately protected from the consequences of the postulated flood event.     

A PRELIMINARY QUANTIFICATION OF THE IMPACTS OF ASPEN TO CONIFER SUCCESSION ON WATER YIELD - I. HEAT PULSE METHODOLOGY FOR MODEL CALIBRATION1

ABSTRACT: Twenty-six aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), 20 subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarps (Hook.) Nutt.), and 20 Engelmann spruce (Pices engelmanil (Parry) Engelm.) of various sizes were cut under water and suspended in permanent reserviors at a northern Utah site. The reservoirs were asealed so that all water loss was due to consumption by the trees. Sap velocities, as computed from heat pulse velocities, were related to conducting areas of the tree trunks. Computed transpiration volumes were then correlated with actual water losses from the reservoirs. Coefficients of determination (R²) of 0.87, 0.86, and 0.82 were obtained for the fir, aspen, and sprucs, respectively. Reservoir water loss for each species for each season was then used to adjust a plant activity index for computing transpiration within ASPCON, a model describing the hydrology of aspen to conifer succession. The plant activity index reflects the variation in the capability of a plant community to transpire water over the year. Assumptions and limitations of the heat pulse velocity technique are also outlined.     

A CRITICAL APPROACH TO THE CALIBRATION OF A WATERSHED MODEL1

ABSTRACT: A complex watershed-scale water quality simulation model, the Hydrological Simulation Program-FORTRAN (HSPF) model, was calibrated for a 16 km² catchment. The simulation step size was 0.33 hours with predicted and recorded hydrologic flows compared on an annual and monthly basis during a total calibration period of four years. Unguided numerical optimization when applied alone did not yield a model parameter set with acceptable predictive capability; instead, it was necessary to apply a critical process that included sensitivity analysis, numerical optimization, and testing of derived model parameter sets to evaluate their performance for periods other than those for which they were determined. Using this critical calibration process, the model was proven to have significant predictive capability. Numerical optimization is an aid for model calibration, but it must not be used blindly.     

METHODOLOGY AND EMPIRICAL ESTIMATES OF THE RESPONSE FUNCTION OF SORGHUM TO IRRIGATION AND SOIL MOISTURE1

ABSTRACT: This paper presents a methodology for the estimation of response functions of crops to irrigation and soil moisture. A system analysis framework is applied to describe the relationships involved. Two subsystems are distinguished, with the first one involving the relationship between irrigation decision variables and soil state variables, and the second involving the relationship between soil state variables and crop yield. A method for tracing and predicting soil moisture profile variations over time and depth is presented, and empirical estimates of the response function of grain sorghum to soil moisture are derived. In the specification of the response function the concept of “critical days” is applied with a “critical day” being defined as one where the soil moisture is depleted below a certain critical level. The paper provides empirical evidence for the usefulness of the approach     

INTEGRATING DEMOGRAPHIC AND LANDSAT (TM) DATA AT A WATERSHED SCALE1

ABSTRACT: Recurrent calls for integrated resource management urge that an understanding of human activities and populations be incorporated into natural resource research, management, and protection efforts. In this paper, we hypothesize that watersheds can be a valuable geography for organizing an inquiry into the relationship between humans and the environment, and we present a framework for conducting such efforts. The framework is grounded in the emerging field of landscape ecology and incorporates demographic theory and data. Demography has been advanced by technological capabilities associated with the 1990 Census. Employing Geographic Information System (GIS) tools, we couple Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) land cover data with census‐derived housing density data to demonstrate the operation of our framework and its utility for better understanding human‐landscape interactions. In our investigation of the Kickapoo Watershed and two sub‐ watersheds, located in southwestern Wisconsin, we identify relationships between landscape composition and the distribution and social structure of human populations. Our findings offer insight into the interplay between people and biophysical systems.     

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PLAN OF STUDY – AN INTERAGENCY APPROACH TO MULTIOBJECTIVE PLANNING AND EVALUATION OF WATER AND LAND RESOURCE USE1

ABSTRACT The paper presents a systems approach for planning and evaluating alternative plans for resource use incorporating the concepts of multiobjective planning and evaluation (MOPE). The need for multidisciplinary input and strong interagency cooperation in planning for resource use is related to the logical and orderly completion of the planning steps. The paper briefly describes MOPE, emphasizing two important concepts: (1) the relationship of the study problems and objectives to national social objectives, and (2) the display of alternative solutions showing tradeoffs. Several important characteristics of a plan of study which implements MOPE are presented and discussed. A proposed MOPE analytical system is discussed in detail. The MOPE analytical system is divided into eight interdependent subsystems that describe data collection, use, analysis, and results. A linear program (L.P.) model is proposed to analyze the present and future demand relationships for natural resources. The model will also evaluate the interaction of agriculture, forestry, and recreation with the resource base of the basin, considering National Economic Development, Environmental Quality, and Regional Development.     

INTEGRATION OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND A COMPUTER MODEL TO EVALUATE IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURAL RUNOFF ON WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: This study integrates an Agricultural Non-Point Source Pollution Model (AGNPS), the Geographic Resource Analysis Support System (GRASS) (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1987), and GRASS WATERWORKS (a hydrologic modeling tool box being developed at the Michigan State University Center for Remote Sensing) to evaluate the impact of agricultural runoff on water quality in the Cass River, a subwatershed of Saginaw Bay. AGNPS is used to estimate the amounts, origin, and distribution of sediment, nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) in the watershed. GRASS and GRASS WATERWORKS are used to generate parameters needed for AGNPS from digital maps, which include soil association, land use, watershed boundaries, water features, and digital elevation. Outputs of the model include spatially distributed estimates of volume and peak runoff, overland and channel erosion, sediment yields, and concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus. Management scenarios are explored in the AGNPS model to minimize sedimentation and nutrient loading. Scenarios evaluated include variations in crop cover, tillage methods, and other agricultural management practices. In addition, areas vulnerable to erosion are identified for best management practices.     

LANDSCAPE‐SCALE ANALYSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF CUMULATIVE IMPACTS TO RIPARIAN ECOSYSTEMS: PAST,PRESENT, AND FUTURE1

ABSTRACT: Analyses of cumulative impacts to riparian systems is an important yet elusive goal. Previous analyses have focused on comparing the number of hectares impacted to the number of hectares restored, without addressing the loss of riparian function or the effect of the spatial distribution of impacts. This paper presents an analysis of the spatial distribution of development‐related impacts to riparian ecosystems, that were authorized under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. Impacts on habitat structure, contiguity, and landscape context were evaluated using functional indices scaled to regional reference sites. Impact sites were mapped using GIS and analyzed for spatial associations. Positive spatial autocorrelation (i.e. clustering of impact sites) resulted from the piecemeal approach to impact assessment, which failed to prevent cumulative impacts. Numerous small projects in close proximity have resulted in adverse impacts to entire stream reaches or have fragmented the aquatic resources to a point where overall functional capacity is impaired. Additionally, the ecological functions of unaffected areas have been diminished due to their proximity to degraded areas. A proactive approach to managing cumulative impacts is currently being used in Orange County, California as part of a Corps of Engineers sponsored Special Area Management Plan (SAMP). The SAMP process is evaluating the ecological conditions and physical processes of the study watersheds and attempting to plan future development in a manner that will guard against cumulative impacts.     

THE USE OF A SIMPLE MODEL AND UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS IN LAKE MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT: A simple, black-box lake model was developed for phosphorus, using nonlinear regression analysis on a data base of north temperate lakes. The uncertainty associated with the model was then combined with the parameter uncertainty and the independent variable uncertainty to provide an estimate of the confidence limits associated with a predicted value. The prediction uncertainty is often neglected, yet it is an important measure of the usefulness of a model. Prediction uncertainty reflects the modeler's confidence in the model, and it should be used by a decision maker as a weight indicating the value of the model prediction. A procedure is outlined that combined lake modeling and uncertainty analysis for use in lake quality assessment and lake management. An example is provided illustrating the use of this procedure in nutrient budget sampling design, data analysis, and the evaluation of lake management strategies for a 208 program in New Hampshire.     

AN INTERPRETATIVE ANALYSIS OF FAMILY AND INDIVIDUAL ECONOMIC COSTS DUE TO WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT1

ABSTRACT This article reports information on the economic costs not covered by resettlement procedures to forced migrants from a flood-control reservoir. Data come from a sample of 200 families relocated due to construction of the Carr Fork Reservoir in the Coal Regions of Eastern Kentucky (Knott County). Responses indicated that economic costs were greater than the monetary settlement provided by the Corps of Engineers and that economic loss was not randomly distributed among the relocated persons. Analysis showed that persons who were more likely to be victims of greater economic costs due to relocation were landowners, older families with one or two members, persons with lower incomes and persons who were long time residents of the area. It is suggested that change angencies not only include property purchased by necessity in the cost-benefit ratio, but also other costs that have a direct affect on the welfare of the target population. In addition, it is suggested that case workers visit migrants during and after the relocation process to assist in solving various adjustment problems.     

OPTICAL IMPACTS AND SOURCES OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS IN ONONDAGA CREEK,U.S.A.1

ABSTRACT: The degradation of the optical aesthetics in the mouth of Onondaga Creek, New York, that occurs during high flow periods as a result of the influx of large quantities of suspended solids, is documented. Features of the degradation include very low clarity (Secchi disc minimum of approximately 0.1 m) and a brown ‘muddy’ appearance. The reduced clarity is mostly a result of increased light scattering. Loading and concentration profiles obtained for an approximately 35 km interval above the creek mouth over a wide range of flow indicates most of the suspended solids received during runoff events is resuspended stream sediment and eroded bank material. Application of microscopy-based individual particle analysis techniques indicates that the origin of most of these deposits and much of the suspended solids during runoff events is point source inputs, termed ‘mud boils,’ located approximately 32 km upstream of the creek mouth.