Sewage sludge to landfill: some pertinent engineering properties

More stringent controls on the quality of wastewater discharges have given rise to increasing volumes of sewage sludge for disposal, principally to land, using either land-spreading or sludge-to-landfill operations. Current sludge-to-landfill methods generally involve mixing the concentrated sludge with other solid waste in municipal landfills. However, stricter waste disposal legislation and higher landfill taxes are forcing the water industry to look for more efficient disposal strategies. Landfill operators are also increasingly reluctant to accept sludge material in the slurry state because of construction difficulties and the potential for instability of the landfill slopes. The engineering and drying properties of a municipal sewage sludge are presented and applied, in particular, to the design, construction, and performance of sewage sludge monofills. Sludge handling and landfill construction are most effectively conducted within the water content range of 85% water content, the optimum water content for standard proctor compaction, and 95% water content, the sticky limit of the sludge material. Standard proctor compaction of the sludge within this water content range also achieves the maximum dry density of approximately 0.56 tonne/m3, which maximizes the storage capacity and, hence, the operational life of the landfill site. Undrained shear strength-water content data (pertinent to the stability of the landfill body during construction) and effective stress-strength parameters, which take into account the landfill age and the effects of ongoing sludge digestion, are presented. Landfill subsidence, which occurs principally because of creep and decomposition of the solid organic particles, is significant and continues indefinitely but at progressively slower rates.     

Polymers as Solid Waste in Municipal Landfills

Abstract

Synthetic polymers reach municipal landfills as components of products such as waste household paints, packaging films, storage containers, carpet fibers, and absorbent sanitary products. Some polymers in consumer products that reach landfills are designed to photodegrade or biodegrade. This article examines the significance of degradable polymers in management of solid waste in municipal landfills. Most landfills are not designed to photodegrade or biodegrade solid waste. Landfill disposal of stable polymers such as polyacrylics and polyethylenes is not associated with significant polymer degradation or mobility. Stability to photodegradation and biodegradation is an advantage when municipal landfills are used for disposal of polymer products as solid waste. Use of landfill disposal can be a responsible means to manage polymer waste and can be part of an overall waste management plan which includes source reduction, recycling, reuse, composting, and waste-to-energy incineration.     

Codisposal of municipal refuse, sewage sludge and marine dredgings for methane production

As marine disposal of sewage sludge and dredged sediments may impose serious adverse effects to marine ecosystems, landfilling seems to be the most feasible method for the final disposal of these wastes. A batch experiment was conducted to study waste degradation and gas production after sewage sludge and marine dredgings were mixed with municipal refuse at 13 different ratios for 36 days. The addition of sludge and dredgings to municipal refuse enhanced gas production, compared with the degradation of refuse or sludge alone. A proper mixing ratio of wastes can also shorten the time to reach the final phase of anaerobiosis. The highest gas production was obtained from the ratio of 75-20-5 (refuse-sludge-dredgings) (wet weight basis). Its average daily gas production rate was 1.42 l kg(-1) waste mixture; methane content was 68.3%. The results indicated that codisposal of the three wastes would be beneficial for energy recovery from landfill gas.     

Effect of biogas generation on radon emissions from landfills receiving radium-bearing waste from shale gas development

Dramatic increases in the development of oil and natural gas from shale formations will result in large quantities of drill cuttings, flowback water, and produced water. These organic-rich shale gas formations often contain elevated concentrations of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM), such as uranium, thorium, and radium. Production of oil and gas from these formations will also lead to the development of technologically enhanced NORM (TENORM) in production equipment. Disposal of these potentially radium-bearing materials in municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills could release radon to the atmosphere. Risk analyses of disposal of radium-bearing TENORM in MSW landfills sponsored by the Department of Energy did not consider the effect of landfill gas (LFG) generation or LFG control systems on radon emissions. Simulation of radon emissions from landfills with LFG generation indicates that LFG generation can significantly increase radon emissions relative to emissions without LFG generation, where the radon emissions are largely controlled by vapor-phase diffusion. Although the operation of LFG control systems at landfills with radon source materials can result in point-source atmospheric radon plumes, the LFG control systems tend to reduce overall radon emissions by reducing advective gas flow through the landfill surface, and increasing the radon residence time in the subsurface, thus allowing more time for radon to decay. In some of the disposal scenarios considered, the radon flux from the landfill and off-site atmospheric activities exceed levels that would be allowed for radon emissions from uranium mill tailings.

Implications: Increased development of hydrocarbons from organic-rich shale formations has raised public concern that wastes from these activities containing naturally occurring radioactive materials, particularly radium, may be disposed in municipal solid waste landfills and endanger public health by releasing radon to the atmosphere. This paper analyses the processes by which radon may be emitted from a landfill to the atmosphere. The analyses indicate that landfill gas generation can significantly increase radon emissions, but that the actual level of radon emissions depend on the place of the waste, construction of the landfill cover, and nature of the landfill gas control system.     

城市污水污泥固结体重金属浸出毒性及路用性能研究

城市污水污泥的重金属离子Pb、Zn超过国家固体废弃物排放最高允许值,属于危险废物。污水污泥的最佳出路是无害化处理,资源化利用,产业化发展。研究了以上海市污水污泥为原料,加入一定比例的固化剂和矿物掺合料使之固结,经养护满足路用强度性能,测试其固结体重金属离子浸出质量浓度亦满足国家固体废弃物排放标准,即污泥中的重金属离子得到有效的束缚和稳定固化,既解决了环境问题,又为污泥产业化发展开辟了新的途径。     

Economic evaluation of a landfill system with gas recovery for municipal solid waste management: a case study

Economic activity uses resources, which leads to waste generation. With rapid industrialisation and urbanisation, per capita solid waste generation has increased considerably. Solid waste generation data for last two decades shows an alarming increase. Owing to its improper and untimely collection, the transport and disposal of municipal solid waste poses a severe threat to various components of the environment and also to public health. This paper describes the merits and demerits of various technological aspects of solid waste management. Landfill technology, as it is the most widely employed and is regarded as the most suitable and simple mechanism, especially for tropical countries such as India, is emphasised. All possible costs and benefits and externalities are examined. A cost-benefit analysis of a landfill system with gas recovery (LFSGR) has been carried out for Mumbai city's solid waste, accounting for certain external costs and benefits, and found that it could make a huge difference of savings of about Rs. 6.366 billion (approx. $0.l40 billion) per annum with reference to the existing system of waste disposal.     

A comprehensive study on landfill site selection for Kolkata City,India

Kolkata is one of the four major metropolitan cities in India and the capital city of the state of West Bengal. With an area of 187.33 km² and a population of about 10 million (including a floating population of about 6 million), the city generates about 3500 Metric Ton (MT) of solid waste per day. Currently, Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) disposes its waste at Dhapa (21.47 ha), where the disposal rate exceeds 3000 MT/day, and at Garden Reach (3.52 ha), where the disposal rate is 100 MT/day. Considering the exhaustion of Dhapa land space, city planners are urgently searching for an alternate disposal ground. National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), under the sponsorship of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), has brought out literature developing the site selection criteria for municipal solid waste disposal ground to suit Indian conditions. The developed criteria encompass environmental conditions, accessibility, geological and hydrogeological conditions, and ecological and societal effects. This paper attempts to locate the most suitable site for disposal of KMC area solid waste using the multicriterion decision analysis as stipulated in CPCB 2003 guidelines and the overlay analysis of geographic information system (GIS).

Implications:The paper is based on landfill site selection for dumping of solid waste generated within Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) area. The methodology uses GIS/remote sensing, Site Sensitivity Index (an offshoot of pairwise comparison technique developed in CPCB 2003 guidelines, Government of India), and the Delphi technique. Dhapa landfill site, where solid waste of KMC area is currently being disposed, is exhausted; the authors of this article thus found it relevant to carry out a research on the selection of an alternative landfill site. The study undertaken was comprehensive, yet presented in a lucid way so that policymakers will find easy to comprehend.     

Geotechnical Engineering Properties of Incinerator Ash Mixes

Abstract

The incineration of solid waste produces large quantities of bottom and fly ash. Landfilling has been the primary mode of disposal of these waste materials. Shortage in landfill space and the high cost of treatment have, however, prompted the search for alternative uses of these waste materials. This study presents an experimental program that was conducted to determine the engineering properties of incinerator ash mixes for use as construction materials. Incinerator ash mixes were tested as received and around optimum compacted conditions. Compaction curves, shear strength, and permeability values of fly ash, bottom ash, and their various blends were investigated. Bottom ash tends to achieve maximum dry density at much lower water content than does fly ash. The mixes displayed a change in their cohesion and friction angle values when one of the two mix components was altered or as a result of the addition of water. The permeability of bottom ash is quite comparable to that of sand. The permeability of fly ash lies in the range of those values obtained for silts and clays. A 100% bottom ash compacted at the optimum water content has a lower density value and yields a higher friction angle and cohesion values than most construction fills. This would encourage the use of bottom ash as a fill or embankment material because free drainage of water will prevent the buildup of pore water pressures.     

Airborne Emissions of Mercury from Municipal Solid Waste. II: Potential Losses of Airborne Mercury before Landfill

Abstract

Waste distribution and compaction at the working face of municipal waste landfills releases mercury vapor (Hg⁰) to the atmosphere, as does the flaring of landfill gas. Waste storage and processing before its addition to the landfill also has the potential to release Hg⁰ to the air if it is initially present or formed by chemical reduction of Hg^II to Hg⁰ within collected waste. We measured the release of Hg vapor to the atmosphere during dumpster and transfer station activities and waste storage before landfilling at a municipal landfill operation in central Florida. We also quantified the potential contribution of specific Hg-bearing wastes, including mercury (Hg) thermometers and fluorescent bulbs, and searched for primary Hg sources in sorted wastes at three different landfills. Surprisingly large fluxes were estimated for Hg losses at transfer facilities (～100 mg/hr) and from dumpsters in the field (～30 mg/hr for 1,000 dumpsters), suggesting that Hg emissions occurring before landfilling may constitute a significant fraction of the total emission from the disposal/landfill cycle and a need for more measurements on these sources. Reducing conditions of landfill burial were obviously not needed to generate strong Hg⁰ signals, indicating that much of the Hg was already present in a metallic (Hg⁰) form. Attempts to identify specific Hg sources in excavated and sorted waste indicated few readily identifiable sources; because of effective mixing and diffusion of Hg⁰, the entire waste mass acts as a source. Broken fluorescent bulbs and thermometers in dumpsters emitted Hg⁰ at 10 to >100 μg/hr and continued to act as near constant sources for several days.     

Effects of leachate recirculation on biogas production from landfill co-disposal of municipal solid waste,sewage sludge and marine sediment

Leachate recirculation is an emerging technology associated with the management of landfill. The impact of leachate recirculation on the co-disposal of three major wastes (municipal solid waste, sewage sludge and sediment dredgings) was investigated using a laboratory column study. Chemical parameters (pH, COD, ammoniacal-N, total-P) and gas production (total gas volume, production rates and concentrations of CH4 and CO2) were monitored for 11 weeks. Leachate recirculation reduced waste-stabilization time and was effective in enhancing gas production and improving leachate quality, especially in terms of COD. The results also indicated that leachate recirculation could maximize the efficiency and waste volume reduction rate of landfill sites.     

Integrating Geographic Information System network analysis and nighttime light satellite imagery to optimize landfill regionalization on a regional level

More than half of financial resources allocated for municipal solid waste management are typically spent on waste collection and transportation. An optimized landfill siting and waste collection system can save fuel costs, reduce collection truck emissions, and provide higher accessibility with lower traffic impacts. In this study, a data-driven analytical framework is developed to optimize population coverage by landfills using network analysis and satellite imagery. Two scenarios, SC1 and SC2, with different truck travel times were used to simulate generation-site–disposal-site distances in three Canadian provinces. Under status quo conditions, Landfill Regionalization Index (LFRI) ranging from 0 to 2 population centers per landfill in all three jurisdictions. LFRI consistently improved after optimization, with average LFRI ranging from 1.3 to 2.0 population centers per landfill. Lower average truck travel times and better coverage of the population centers are generally observed in the optimized systems. The proposed analytical method is found effective in improving landfill regionalization. Under SC1 and SC2, LFRI percentages of improvement ranging from 58.3% to 64.5% and 22.7% to 59.4%, respectively. Separation distance between the generation and disposal sites and truck capacity appear not a decisive factor in the optimization process. The proposed optimization framework is generally applicable to regions with different geographical and demographical attributes, and is particularly applicable in rural regions with sparsely located population centers.

     

Household hazardous waste disposal to landfill: using LandSim to model leachate migration

Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill leachate contains a number of aquatic pollutants. A specific MSW stream often referred to as household hazardous waste (HHW) can be considered to contribute a large proportion of these pollutants. This paper describes the use of the LandSim (Landfill Performance Simulation) modelling program to assess the environmental consequences of leachate release from a generic MSW landfill in receipt of co-disposed HHW. Heavy metals and organic pollutants were found to migrate into the zones beneath a model landfill site over a 20,000-year period. Arsenic and chromium were found to exceed European Union and US-EPA drinking water standards at the unsaturated zone/aquifer interface, with levels of mercury and cadmium exceeding minimum reporting values (MRVs). The findings demonstrate the pollution potential arising from HHW disposal with MSW.     

苏州市生活垃圾两种处置方法的生命周期影响评价

采用生命周期评价的方法,比较了苏州市垃圾填埋和垃圾焚烧2种处置方法对环境的影响。研究的系统范围主要包括垃圾收集、垃圾运输、垃圾填埋或焚烧以及发电等几个部分。采用收集的垃圾组分数据,利用IPCC推荐的模型等,计算了垃圾填埋和垃圾焚烧时CO₂等气体污染物的排放量。根据对垃圾渗滤液的实测数据,计算了水污染物的排放量。环境影响评价采用日本开发的AIST-LCA Ver4计算机软件进行。计算结果表明：垃圾填埋的生态币值要大得多,可见垃圾焚烧对环境的影响比垃圾填埋的影响要小。所获得的结论较为客观地反映了对环境的影响,可以作为中国城市垃圾处置决策的参考依据。     

Utilization of urban sewage sludge: Chinese perspectives

Purpose

Urbanization and industrialization in China has resulted in a dramatic increase in the volume of wastewater and sewage sludge produced from wastewater treatment plants. Problems associated with sewage sludge have attracted increasing attention from the public and urban planners. How to manage sludge in an economically and environmentally acceptable manner is one of the critical issues that modern societies are facing.

Methods

Sludge treatment systems consist of thickening, dewatering, and several different alternative main treatments (anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, drying, composting, and incineration). Agricultural application, landfill, and incineration are the principal disposal methods for sewage sludge in China. However, sewage sludge disposal in the future should focus on resource recovery, reducing environmental impacts and saving economic costs.

Results

The reuse of biosolids in all scenarios can be environmentally beneficial and cost-effective. Anaerobic digestion followed by land application is the preferable options due to low economic and energy costs and material reuse.

Conclusion

It is necessary to formulate a standard suitable for the utilization of sewage sludge in China.     

Atmospheric mercury emissions from waste combustions measured by continuous monitoring devices

Atmospheric mercury emissions have attracted great attention owing to adverse impact of mercury on human health and the ecosystem. Although waste combustion is one of major anthropogenic sources, estimated emission might have large uncertainty due to great heterogeneity of wastes. This study investigated atmospheric emissions of speciated mercury from the combustions of municipal solid wastes (MSW), sewage treatment sludge (STS), STS with waste plastics, industrial waste mixtures (IWM), waste plastics from construction demolition, and woody wastes using continuous monitoring devices. Reactive gaseous mercury was the major form at the inlet side of air pollution control devices in all combustion cases. Its concentration was 2.0–70.6 times larger than elemental mercury concentration. In particular, MSW, STS, and IWM combustions emitted higher concentration of reactive gaseous mercury. Concentrations of both gaseous mercury species varied greatly for all waste combustions excluding woody waste. Variation coefficients of measured data were nearly equal to or more than 1.0. Emission factors of gaseous elemental mercury, reactive gaseous mercury, and total mercury were calculated using continuous monitoring data. Total mercury emission factors are 0.30 g-Hg/Mg for MSW combustion, 0.21 g-Hg/Mg for STS combustion, 0.077 g-Hg/Mg for STS with waste plastics, 0.724 g-Hg/Mg for industrial waste mixtures, 0.028 g-Hg/Mg for waste plastic combustion, and 0.0026 g-Hg/Mg for woody waste combustion. All emission factors evaluated in this study were comparable or lower than other reported data. Emission inventory using old emission factors likely causes an overestimation.

Implications Although waste combustion is one of major anthropogenic sources of atmospheric mercury emission, estimated emission might have large uncertainty due to great heterogeneity of wastes. This study investigated speciated mercury emissions from the combustions of municipal solid wastes, sewage treatment sludge with/without waste plastics, industrial waste mixtures, waste plastics from construction demolition, and woody wastes using continuous monitoring devices. Reactive gaseous mercury was the major form in all combustion cases and its concentration in the gas had large fluctuation. All emission factors evaluated in this study were comparable or lower than other reported data. Emission inventory using old emission factors likely causes an overestimation.     

市政污泥与生活垃圾混烧技术验证简

对市政污泥与生活垃圾混烧进行了验证研究。结果表明,与生活垃圾单独焚烧相比,污泥与生活垃圾混烧后烟气中NO_x、CO和HCl的浓度没有出现明显变化,而SO₂浓度出现了下降（从82~93 mg/m³下降至41~70 mg/m³）;Hg、Pb、Sn、Cr和Zn的浓度均表现为不同程度的上升,但仍然符合GB18485;二恶英从0.0087 ng TEQ/m³降至0.0047 ng TEQ/m³。掺烧半干污泥比例为10%、12%和15%时,吨物质的发电量分别为311.8 kWh/t、306.7 kWh/t和296.1 kWh/t。混烧污泥在一定程度上降低了系统的发电量,因此建议混烧污泥的比例不应大于15%。测算的污泥混烧成本约209元/t（80%含水率）。     

市政污泥与生活垃圾混烧技术验证

对市政污泥与生活垃圾混烧进行了验证研究。结果表明,与生活垃圾单独焚烧相比,污泥与生活垃圾混烧后烟气中NOx、CO和HCl的浓度没有出现明显变化,而SO2浓度出现了下降（从82～93mg／m3下降至41～70mg／m3）;Hg、Pb、Sn、Cr和Zn的浓度均表现为不同程度的上升,但仍然符合GB[g485;二恶英从0．0087μgTEQ／m3降至O．0047μgTEQ／m3。掺烧半干污泥比例为10％、12％和15％时,吨物质的发电量分别为311．8kWh／t、306．7kWh／t和296．1kwh／t。混烧污泥在一定程度上降低了系统的发电量,因此建议混烧污泥的比例不应大于15％。测算的污泥混烧成本约209元／t（80％含水率）。     

Permeability test and slope stability analysis of municipal solid waste in Jiangcungou Landfill,Shaanxi, China

With the rapid increase of city waste, landfills have become a major method to deals with municipal solid waste. Thus, the safety of landfills has become a valuable research topic. In this paper, Jiangcungou Landfill, located in Shaanxi, China, was investigated and its slope stability was analyzed. Laboratory tests were used to obtain permeability coefficients of municipal solid waste. Based on the results, the distribution of leachate and stability in the landfill was computed and analyzed. These results showed: the range of permeability coefficient was from 1.0 × 10^–7 cm sec^–1 to 6.0 × 10^–3 cm sec^–1 on basis of laboratory test and some parameters of similar landfills. Owing to the existence of intermediate cover layers in the landfill, the perched water level appeared in the landfill with heavy rain. Moreover, the waste was filled with leachate in the top layer, and the range of leachate level was from 2 m to 5 m in depth under the waste surface in other layers. The closer it gets to the surface of landfill, the higher the perched water level of leachate. It is indicated that the minimum safety factors were 1.516 and 0.958 for winter and summer, respectively. Additionally, the slope failure may occur in summer.

Implications: The research of seepage and stability in landfills may provide a less costly way to reduce accidents. Landslides often occur in the Jiangcungou Landfill because of the high leachate level. Some measures should be implemented to reduce the leachate level. This paper investigated seepage and slope stability of landfills by numerical methods. These results may provide the basis for increasing stability of landfills.     

From agricultural use of sewage sludge to nutrient extraction: A soil science outlook

The composition of municipal wastewater and sewage sludge reflects the use and proliferation of elements and contaminants within society. In Sweden, official statistics show that concentrations of toxic metals in municipal sewage sludge have steadily decreased, by up to 90 %, since the 1970s, due to environmental programmes and statutory limits on metals in sludge and soil. Results from long-term field experiments show that reduced metal pollution during repeated sewage sludge application has reversed negative trends in soil biology. Despite this Swedish success story, organic waste recycling from Swedish towns and cities to arable land is still limited to only about 20 % of the total amount produced. Resistance among industries and consumers to products grown on land treated with sewage sludge may not always be scientifically grounded; however, there are rational obstacles to application of sewage sludge to land based on its inherent properties rather than its content of pollutants. We argue that application of urban organic wastes to soil is an efficient form of recycling for small municipalities, but that organic waste treatment from large cities requires other solutions. The large volumes of sewage sludge collected in towns and cities are not equitably distributed back to arable land because of the following: (i) The high water and low nutrient content in sewage sludge make long-distance transportation too expensive; and (ii) the low plant availability of nutrients in sewage sludge results in small yield increases even after many years of repeated sludge addition. Therefore, nutrient extraction from urban wastes instead of direct organic waste recycling is a possible way forward. The trend for increased combustion of urban wastes will make ash a key waste type in future. Combustion not only concentrates the nutrients in the ash but also leads to metal enrichment; hence, direct application of the ash to land is most often not possible. However, inorganic fertiliser (e.g. mono-ammonium phosphate fertiliser, MAP) can be produced from metal-contaminated sewage sludge ash in a process whereby the metals are removed. We argue that the view on organic waste recycling needs to be diversified in order to improve the urban–rural nutrient cycle, since only recycling urban organic wastes directly is not a viable option to close the urban–rural nutrient cycle. Recovery and recycling of nutrients from organic wastes are a possible solution. When organic waste recycling is complemented by nutrient extraction, some nutrient loops within society can be closed, enabling more sustainable agricultural production in future.     

垃圾填埋场水分迁移模型的应用研究

以渗滤液回灌为核心的填埋场生化反应器是当今国际固体废物研究的新方向 ,其具有减少渗滤液处理难度和加速填埋场稳定化的作用 ,其中控制填埋场水分是关键。本文通过对填埋场水分运移特征的分析 ,建立了渗滤液回灌条件下 ,生化反应器填埋场水分迁移的饱和 -非饱和三维非稳定数学模型 ,并求其有限单元数值解 ,定量模拟和预报不同回灌条件下填埋场水分的时空分布规律并进行实用研究。针对重庆市长生桥卫生填埋场设计情况和实际条件 ,运移模拟模型分析了水平沟和竖式井回灌条件下填埋场内水分的分布规律 ,证明了协同回灌方式的有效性