The influences of ambient particle composition and size on particle infiltration in Los Angeles, CA, residences

Particle infiltration is a key determinant of the indoor concentrations of ambient particles. Few studies have examined the influence of particle composition on infiltration, particularly in areas with high concentrations of volatile particles, such as ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). A comprehensive indoor monitoring study was conducted in 17 Los Angeles-area homes. As part of this study, indoor/outdoor concentration ratios during overnight (nonindoor source) periods were used to estimate the fraction of ambient particles remaining airborne indoors, or the particle infiltration factor (FINF), for fine particles (PM2.5), its nonvolatile (i.e., black carbon [BC]) and volatile (i.e., nitrate [NO3-]) components, and particle sizes ranging between 0.02 and 10 microm. FINF was highest for BC (median = 0.84) and lowest for NO3- (median = 0.18). The low FINF for NO3- was likely because of volatilization of NO3- particles once indoors, in addition to depositional losses upon building entry. The FINF for PM2.5 (median = 0.48) fell between those for BC and NO3-, reflecting the contributions of both particle components to PM25. FINF varied with particle size, air-exchange rate, and outdoor NO3- concentrations. The FINF for particles between 0.7 and 2 microm in size was considerably lower during periods of high as compared with low outdoor NO3- concentrations, suggesting that outdoor NO3- particles were of this size. This study demonstrates that infiltration of PM2.5 varies by particle component and is lowest for volatile species, such as NH4NO3. Our results suggest that volatile particle components may influence the ability for outdoor PM concentrations to represent indoor and, thus, personal exposures to particles of ambient origin, because volatilization of these particles causes the composition of PM2.5 to differ indoors and outdoors. Consequently, particle composition likely influences observed epidemiologic relationships based on outdoor PM concentrations, especially in areas with high concentrations of NH4NO3 and other volatile particles.     

PM2.5, soot and NO2 indoor–outdoor relationships at homes,pre-schools and schools in Stockholm,Sweden

In developed nations people spend about 90% of their time indoors. The relationship between indoor and outdoor air pollution levels is important for the understanding of the health effects of outdoor air pollution. Although other studies describe both the outdoor and indoor atmospheric environment, few excluded a priori major indoor sources, measured the air exchange rate, included more than one micro-environment and included the presence of human activity. PM_2.5, soot, NO₂ and the air exchange rate were measured during winter and summer indoors and outdoors at 18 homes (mostly apartments) of 18 children (6–11-years-old) and also at the six schools and 10 pre-schools that the children attended. The three types of indoor environments were free of environmental tobacco smoke and gas appliances, as the aim was to asses to what extent PM_2.5, soot and NO₂ infiltrate from outdoors to indoors. The median indoor and outdoor PM_2.5 levels were 8.4 μg m^?3 and 9.3 μg m^?3, respectively. The median indoor levels for soot and NO₂ were 0.66 m^?1 × 10^?5 and 10.0 μg m^?3, respectively. The respective outdoor levels were 0.96 m^?1 × 10^?5 and 12.4 μg m^?3. The median indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios were 0.93, 0.76 and 0.92 for PM_2.5, soot and NO₂, respectively. Their infiltration factors were influenced by the micro-environment, ventilation type and air exchange rate, with aggregated values of 0.25, 0.55 and 0.64, respectively. Indoor and outdoor NO₂ levels were strongly associated (R² = 0.71), followed by soot (R² = 0.50) and PM_2.5 (R² = 0.16). In Stockholm, the three major indoor environments occupied by children offer little protection against combustion-related particles and gases in the outdoor air. Outdoor PM_2.5 seems to infiltrate less, but indoor sources compensate.     

Determinants of indoor and personal exposure to PM2.5 of indoor and outdoor origin during the RIOPA study

Effects of physical/environmental factors on fine particle (PM_2.5) exposure, outdoor-to-indoor transport and air exchange rate (AER) were examined. The fraction of ambient PM_2.5 found indoors (F_INF) and the fraction to which people are exposed (α) modify personal exposure to ambient PM_2.5. Because F_INF, α, and AER are infrequently measured, some have used air conditioning (AC) as a modifier of ambient PM_2.5 exposure. We found no single variable that was a good predictor of AER. About 50% and 40% of the variation in F_INF and α, respectively, was explained by AER and other activity variables. AER alone explained 36% and 24% of the variations in F_INF and α, respectively. Each other predictor, including Central AC Operation, accounted for less than 4% of the variation. This highlights the importance of AER measurements to predict F_INF and α. Evidence presented suggests that outdoor temperature and home ventilation features affect particle losses as well as AER, and the effects differ.Total personal exposures to PM_2.5 mass/species were reconstructed using personal activity and microenvironmental methods, and compared to direct personal measurement. Outdoor concentration was the dominant predictor of (partial R² = 30–70%) and the largest contributor to (20–90%) indoor and personal exposures for PM_2.5 mass and most species. Several activities had a dramatic impact on personal PM_2.5 mass/species exposures for the few study participants exposed to or engaged in them, including smoking and woodworking. Incorporating personal activities (in addition to outdoor PM_2.5) improved the predictive power of the personal activity model for PM_2.5 mass/species; more detailed information about personal activities and indoor sources is needed for further improvement (especially for Ca, K, OC). Adequate accounting for particle penetration and persistence indoors and for exposure to non-ambient sources could potentially increase the power of epidemiological analyses linking health effects to particulate exposures.     

Is remaining indoors an effective way of reducing exposure to fine particulate matter during biomass burning events?

Bushfires, prescribed burns, and residential wood burning are significant sources of fine particles (aerodynamic diameter <2.5 μm; PM_2.5) affecting the health and well-being of many communities. Despite the lack of evidence, a common public health recommendation is to remain indoors, assuming that the home provides a protective barrier against ambient PM_2.5. The study aimed to assess to what extent houses provide protection against peak concentrations of outdoor PM_2.5 and whether remaining indoors is an effective way of reducing exposure to PM_2.5. The effectiveness of this strategy was evaluated by conducting simultaneous week-long indoor and outdoor measurements of PM_2.5 at 21 residences in regional areas of Victoria, Australia. During smoke plume events, remaining indoors protected residents from peak outdoor PM_2.5 concentrations, but the level of protection was highly variable, ranging from 12% to 76%. Housing stock (e.g., age of the house) and ventilation (e.g., having windows/doors open or closed) played a significant role in the infiltration of outdoor PM_2.5 indoors. The results also showed that leaving windows and doors closed once the smoke plume abates trapped PM_2.5 indoors and increased indoor exposure to PM_2.5. Furthermore, for approximately 50% of households, indoor sources such as cooking activities, smoking, and burning candles or incense contributed significantly to indoor PM_2.5.

Implications: Smoke from biomass burning sources can significantly impact on communities. Remaining indoors with windows and doors closed is a common recommendation by health authorities to minimize exposures to peak concentrations of fine particles during smoke plume events. Findings from this study have shown that the protection from fine particles in biomass burning smoke is highly variable among houses, with information on housing age and ventilation status providing an approximate assessment on the protection of a house. Leaving windows closed once a smoke plume abates traps particles indoors and increases exposures.     

Effect of Gas and Kerosene Space Heaters on Indoor Air Quality: A Study in Homes of Santiago,Chile

Abstract

The impact of outdoor and indoor pollution sources on indoor air quality in Santiago, Chile was investigated. Toward this end, 16 homes were sampled in four sessions. Each session included an outdoor site and four homes using different unvented space heaters (electric or central heating, compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, and kerosene). Average outdoor fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) concentrations were very high (55.9 μg·m^-3), and a large fraction of these particles penetrated indoors. PM_2.5 and several PM_2.5 components (including sulfate, elemental carbon, organic carbon, metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) were elevated in homes using kerosene heaters. Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and ultrafine particles (UFPs) were higher in homes with combustion heaters as compared with those with electric heaters or central heating. A regression model was used to assess the effect of heater use on continuous indoor PM_2.5 concentrations when windows were closed. The model found an impact only for kerosene heaters (45.8 μg m^-3).     

Regional Transport and Urban Contributions to Fine Particle Concentrations in Southeastern Canada

Abstract

The impact of various atmospheric transport directions on ambient fine particle (PM_2.5) concentrations at several sites in southeastern Canada was estimated (for May-September) using back-trajectory analysis. Three-day back trajectories (four per day) were paired with 6-hr average PM_2.5 mass concentrations measured using tapered element oscillating microbalances (TEOM). PM_2.5 concentrations at rural locations in the region were affected by nonlocal sources originating in both Canada and the United States. Comparison of sites revealed that, on average, the local contribution to total PM_2.5 in the greater Toronto area (GTA) is approximately 30–35%. At each location, average PM_2.5 concentrations under south/southwesterly flow conditions were 2–4 times higher than under the corresponding northerly flow conditions. The chemical composition of both urban and rural PM_2.5 was determined during two separate 2-week spring/summer measurement campaigns. Components identified included SO₄ ^2?, NO₃ ^?, NH₄+, black carbon and organic carbon (OC), and trace elements. Higher particle mass at the urban Toronto site was composed of a higher proportion of all components. However, black carbon, NO₃ ^?, NaCl, and trace elements were found to be the most enriched over the rural/regional background levels.     

Indoor particulate matter in urban residences of Alexandria,Egypt

Indoor particulate matter samples were collected in 17 homes in an urban area in Alexandria during the summer season. During air measurement in all selected homes, parallel outdoor air samples were taken in the balconies of the domestic residences. It was found that the mean indoor PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 and ≤10 μm, respectively) concentrations were 53.5 ± 15.2 and 77.2 ± 15.1 µg/m³, respectively. The corresponding mean outdoor levels were 66.2 ± 16.5 and 123.8 ± 32.1 µg/m³, respectively. PM_2.5 concentrations accounted, on average, for 68.8 ± 12.8% of the total PM₁₀ concentrations indoors, whereas PM_2.5 contributed to 53.7 ± 4.9% of the total outdoor PM₁₀ concentrations. The median indoor/outdoor mass concentration (I/O) ratios were 0.81 (range: 0.43–1.45) and 0.65 (range: 0.4–1.07) for PM_2.5 and PM₁₀, respectively. Only four homes were found with I/O ratios above 1, indicating significant contribution from indoor sources. Poor correlation was seen between the indoor PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 levels and the corresponding outdoor concentrations. PM₁₀ levels were significantly correlated with PM_2.5 loadings indoors and outdoors and this might be related to PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 originating from similar particulate matter emission sources. Smoking, cooking using gas stoves, and cleaning were the major indoor sources contributed to elevated indoor levels of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5.

Implications: The current study presents results of the first PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ study in homes located in the city of Alexandria, Egypt. Scarce data are available on indoor air quality in Egypt. Poor correlation was seen between the indoor and outdoor particulate matter concentrations. Indoor sources such as smoking, cooking, and cleaning were found to be the major contributors to elevated indoor levels of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5.     

Investigation of PM2.5 and carbon dioxide levels in urban homes

PM_2.5 (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter <2.5 μm) samples were collected in the indoor environments of 15 urban homes and their adjacent outdoor environments in Alexandria, Egypt, during the spring time. Indoor and outdoor carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels were also measured concurrently. The results showed that indoor and outdoor PM_2.5 concentrations in the 15 sites, with daily averages of 45.5 ± 11.1 and 47.3 ± 12.9 µg/m³, respectively, were significantly higher than the ambient 24-hr PM_2.5 standard of 35 µg/m³ recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The indoor PM_2.5 and CO₂ levels were correlated with the corresponding outdoor levels, demonstrating that outdoor convection and infiltration could lead to direct transportation indoors. Ventilation rates were also measured in the selected residences and ranged from 1.6 to 4.5 hr^?1 with median value of 3.3 hr^?1. The indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios of the monitored homes varied from 0.73 to 1.65 with average value of 0.99 ± 0.26 for PM_2.5, whereas those for CO₂ ranged from 1.13 to 1.66 with average value of 1.41 ± 0.15. Indoor sources and personal activities, including smoking and cooking, were found to significantly influence indoor levels.

Implications: Few studies on indoor air quality were carried out in Egypt, and the scarce data resulted from such studies do not allow accurate assessment of the current situation to take necessary preventive actions. The current research investigates indoor levels of PM_2.5 and CO₂ in a number of homes located in the city of Alexandria as well as the potential contribution from both indoor and outdoor sources. The study draws attention of policymakers to the importance of the establishment of national indoor air quality standards to protect human health and control air pollution in different indoor environments.     

Inorganic and Carbonaceous Components in Indoor/Outdoor Particulate Matter in Two Residential Houses in Oslo,Norway

Abstract

A detailed analysis of indoor/outdoor physicochemical aerosol properties has been performed. Aerosol measurements were taken at two dwellings, one in the city center and the other in the suburbs of the Oslo metropolitan area, during summer/fall and winter/spring periods of 2002–2003. In this paper, emphasis is placed on the chemical characteristics (water-soluble ions and carbonaceous components) of fine (PM_2.5) and coarse (PM_2.5–10) particles and their indoor/outdoor relationship. Results demonstrate that the carbonaceous species were dominant in all fractions of the PM₁₀ particles (cut off size: 0.09–11.31 μm) during all measurement periods, except winter 2003, when increased concentrations of water-soluble inorganic ions were predominant because of sea salt transport. The concentration of organic carbon was higher in the fine and coarse PM₁₀ fractions indoors, whereas elemental carbon was higher indoors only in the coarse fraction. In regards to the carbonaceous species, local traffic and secondary organic aerosol formation were, probably, the main sources outdoors, whereas indoors combustion activities such as preparation of food, burning of candles, and cigarette smoking were the main sources. In contrast, the concentrations of water-soluble inorganic ions were higher outdoors than indoors. The variability of water-soluble inorganic ion concentrations outdoors was related to changes in emissions from local anthropogenic sources, long-range transport of particles, sea salt emissions, and resuspension of roadside and soil dusts. In the indoor environment the infiltration of the outdoor air indoors was the major source of inorganic ions.     

Experimental evidence for a significant contribution of cellulose to indoor aerosol mass concentration

An apartment bedroom located in a residential area of Aveiro (Portugal) was selected with the aim of characterizing the cellulose content of indoor aerosol particles. Two sets of samples were taken: (1) PM₁₀ collected simultaneously in indoor and outdoor air; (2) PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 collected simultaneously in indoor air. The aerosol particles were concentrated on quartz fibre filters with low-volume samplers equipped with size selective inlets. The filters were weighed and then extracted for cellulose analysis by an enzymatic method. The average indoor cellulose concentration was 1.01 ± 0.24 μg m^?3, whereas the average outdoor cellulose concentration was 0.078 ± 0.047 μg m^?3, accounting for 4.0% and 0.4%, respectively, of the PM₁₀ mass. The corresponding average ratio between indoor and outdoor cellulose concentrations was 11.1 ± 4.9, indicating that cellulose particles were generated indoors, most likely due to the handling of cotton-made textiles as a result of routine daily activities in the bedroom. Indoor cellulose concentrations averaged 1.22 ± 0.53 μg m^?3 in the aerosol coarse fraction (determined from the difference between PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 concentrations) and averaged 0.38 ± 0.13 μg m^?3 in the aerosol fine fraction. The average ratio between the coarse and fine fractions of cellulose concentrations in the indoor air was 3.6 ± 2.1. This ratio is in line with the primary origin of this biopolymer. Results from this study provide the first experimental evidence in support of a significant contribution of cellulose to the mass of suspended particles in indoor air.     

Estimating the concentration of indoor particles of outdoor origin: A review

Recent toxicological results highlight the importance of separating exposure to indoor- and outdoor-generated particles, due to their different physicochemical and toxicological properties. In this framework, a number of studies have attempted to estimate the relative contribution of particles of indoor and outdoor origins to indoor concentrations, using either statistical analysis of indoor and outdoor concentration time-series or mass balance equations. The aim of this work is to review and compare the methodologies developed in order to determine the ambient particle infiltration factor (F _INF) (i.e., the fraction of ambient particles that enter indoors and remains suspended). The different approaches are grouped into four categories according to their methodological principles: (1) steady-state assumption using the steady-state form of the mass balance equation; (2) dynamic solution of the mass balance equation using complex statistical techniques; (3) experimental studies using conditions that simplify model calculations (e.g., decreasing the number of unknowns); and (4) infiltration surrogates using a particulate matter (PM) constituent with no indoor sources to act as surrogate of indoor PM of outdoor origin. Examination of the various methodologies and results reveals that estimating infiltration parameters is still challenging. The main difficulty lies in the separate calculation of penetration efficiency (P) and deposition rate (k). The values for these two parameters that are reported in the literature vary significantly. Deposition rate presents the widest range of values, both between studies and size fractions. Penetration efficiency seems to be more accurately calculated through the application of dynamic models. Overall, estimates of the infiltration factor generated using dynamic models and infiltration surrogates show good agreement. This is a strong argument in favor of the latter methodology, which is simple and easy to apply when chemical speciation data are available.

Implications: ?Taking into account that increased health risks may be related with ambient particles, a reliable estimation of the main parameters governing ambient particle infiltration indoors may assist towards the development of appropriate regulation and control measures, targeted to specific sources/factors contributing to increased exposures. The overall study of the methodological approaches estimating particle infiltration indoors suggests that dynamic models provide a more complete and realistic picture of ambient particle infiltration indoors, whereas the use of specific PM constituents to act as surrogates of indoor particles of outdoor origin seems also a promising new methodology.     

Loss of Particle Nitrate from Teflon Sampling Filters: Effects on Measured Gravimetric Mass in California and in the IMPROVE Network

Abstract

The extent of mass loss on Teflon filters caused by ammonium nitrate volatilization can be a substantial fraction of the measured particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5)or 10 μm (PM₁₀) mass and depends on where and when it was collected. There is no straightforward method to correct for the mass loss using routine monitoring data. In southern California during the California Acid Deposition Monitoring Program, 30-40% of the gravimetric PM_2.5 mass was lost during summer daytime. Lower mass losses occurred at more remote locations. The estimated potential mass loss in the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments network was consistent with the measured loss observed in California. The biased mass measurement implies that use of Federal Reference Method data for fine particles may lead to control strategies that are biased toward sources of fugitive dust, other primary particle emission sources, and stable secondary particles (e.g., sulfates). This analysis clearly supports the need for speciated analysis of samples collected in a manner that preserves volatile species. Finally, although there is loss of volatile nitrate (NO₃ ^?) from Teflon filters during sampling, the NO₃ ^? remaining after collection is quite stable. We found little loss of NO₃ ^? from Teflon filters after 2 hr under vacuum and 1 min of heating by a cyclotron proton beam.     

Year-long continuous personal exposure to PM2.5 recorded by a fast responding portable nephelometer

Personal exposure to particulate matter of aerodynamic diameter under 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) was monitored using a DustTrak nephelometer. The battery-operated unit, worn by an adult individual for a period of approximately one year, logged integrated average PM_2.5 concentrations over 5 min intervals. A detailed time-activity diary was used to record the experimental subject’s movement and the microenvironments visited. Altogether 239 days covering all the months (except April) were available for the analysis. In total, 60 463 acceptable 5-min averages were obtained. The dataset was divided into 7 indoor and 4 outdoor microenvironments. Of the total time, 84% was spent indoors, 10.9% outdoors and 5.1% in transport. The indoor 5-min PM_2.5 average was higher (55.7 μg m^?3) than the outdoor value (49.8 μg m^?3). The highest 5-min PM_2.5 average concentration was detected in restaurant microenvironments (1103 μg m^?3), the second highest 5-min average concentration was recorded in indoor spaces heated by stoves burning solid fuels (420 μg m^?3). The lowest 5-min mean aerosol concentrations were detected outdoors in rural/natural environments (25 μg m^?3) and indoors at the monitored person’s home (36 μg m^?3). Outdoor and indoor concentrations of PM_2.5 measured by the nephelometer at home and during movement in the vicinity of the experimental subject’s home were compared with those of the nearest fixed-site monitor of the national air quality monitoring network. The high correlation coefficient (0.78) between the personal and fixed-site monitor aerosol concentrations suggested that fixed-site monitor data can be used as proxies for personal exposure in residential and some other microenvironments. Collocated measurements with a reference method (β-attenuation) showed a non-linear systematic bias of the light-scattering method, limiting the use of direct concentration readings for exact exposure analysis.     

Comparison of Short-Term Variations (15-Minute Averages) in Outdoor and Indoor PM2.5 Concentrations

ABSTRACT

Measurements of 15-min average PM_2.5 concentrations were made with a real-time light-scattering instrument at both outdoor (central monitoring sites in three communities) and indoor (residential) locations over two seasons in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area. These data are used to examine within-day variability of PM_2.5 concentrations indoors and outdoors, as well as matched indoor-to-outdoor (I/O) ratios. Concurrent gravimetric measurements of 24-hr average PM_2.5 concentrations were also obtained as a way to compare real-time measures with this more traditional metric. Results indicate that (1) within-day variability for both indoor and outdoor 15-min average PM_2.5 concentrations was substantial and comparable in magnitude to day-to-day variability for 24hr average concentrations; (2) some residences exhibited substantial variability in indoor aerosol characteristics from one day to the next; (3) peak values for indoor short-term (15-min) average PM_2.5 concentrations routinely exceeded 24-hr average outdoor values by factors of 3-4; and (4) relatively strong correlations existed between indoor and outdoor PM_2.5 concentrations for both 24-hr and 15-min averages.     

Exposure assessment of air pollutants: a review on spatial heterogeneity and indoor/outdoor/personal exposure to suspended particulate matter,nitrogen dioxide and ozone

This review describes databases of small-scale spatial variations and indoor, outdoor and personal measurements of air pollutants with the main focus on suspended particulate matter, and to a lesser extent, nitrogen dioxide and photochemical pollutants. The basic definitions and concepts of an exposure measurement are introduced as well as some study design considerations and implications of imprecise exposure measurements. Suspended particulate matter is complex with respect to particle size distributions, the chemical composition and its sources. With respect to small-scale spatial variations in urban areas, largest variations occur in the ultrafine (<0.1 μm) and the coarse mode (PM_10–2.5, resuspended dust). Secondary aerosols which contribute to the accumulation mode (0.1–2 μm) show quite homogenous spatial distribution. In general, small-scale spatial variations of PM_2.5 were described to be smaller than the spatial variations of PM₁₀. Recent studies in outdoor air show that ultrafine particle number counts have large spatial variations and that they are not well correlated to mass data. Sources of indoor particles are from outdoors and some specific indoor sources such as smoking and cooking for fine particles or moving of people (resuspension of dust) for coarse particles. The relationships between indoor, outdoor and personal levels are complex. The finer the particle size, the better becomes the correlation between indoor, outdoor and personal levels. Furthermore, correlations between these parameters are better in longitudinal analyses than in cross-sectional analyses. For NO₂ and O₃, the air chemistry is important. Both have considerable small-scale spatial variations within urban areas. In the absence of indoor sources such as gas appliances, NO₂ indoor/outdoor relationships are strong. For ozone, indoor levels are quite small. The study hypothesis largely determines the choice of a specific concept in exposure assessment, i.e. whether personal sampling is needed or if ambient monitoring is sufficient. Careful evaluation of the validity and improvements in precision of an exposure measure reduce error in the measurements and bias in the exposure–effect relationship.     

Air Pollution In Pittsburgh: A Historical Perspective

Sources and concentrations of indoor air pollutants and aeroallergens were evaluated in the arid Southwest community of Tucson, Arizona. One major purpose was to appraise the interaction of indoor and outdoor human exposures. A rough time budget study showed that 74% of adults spent 75% or more of their time in some indoor environment. Outdoor and indoor concentrations of TSP, RSP, CO, O₃ and aeroallergens were measured for 41 detached dwellings. Small area and basin monitoring occurred for TSP, CO, NO₂, O₃ and aeroallergens; ambient TSP frequently exceeds NAAQS and both CO and O3 do occasionally. Indoor TSP and RSP were lower than outdoors and were of a different composition. Outdoor infiltration falls rapidly for particles and pollen, related to distance Indoors. CO was low and O₃ was very low indoors. TSP and RSP correlated significantly with tobacco smoking and CO correlated with gas stove usage. Temperature varied minimally indoors and relative humidity indoors was similar to outdoor readings In this climate. It was concluded that better particle characterization and better estimates of total exposure are required.     

Bayesian hierarchical modeling of personal exposure to particulate matter

In the US EPA's 1998 Baltimore Epidemiology-Exposure Panel Study, a group of 16 residents of a single building retirement community wore personal monitors recording personal fine particulate air pollution concentrations (PM_2.5) for 27 days, while other monitors recorded concurrent apartment, central indoor, outdoor and ambient site PM_2.5 concentrations. Using the Baltimore panel study data, we develop a Bayesian hierarchical model to characterize the relationship between personal exposure and concentrations of PM_2.5 indoors and outdoors. Personal exposure is expressed as a linear combination of time spent in microenvironments and associated microenvironmental concentrations. The model incorporates all available monitoring data and accounts for missing data and sources of uncertainty such as measurement error and individual differences in exposure. We discuss the implications of using personal versus ambient PM_2.5 measurements in characterization of personal exposure to PM_2.5.     

Investigation of time-resolved atmospheric conditions and indoor/outdoor particulate matter concentrations in homes with gas and biomass cook stoves in Nogales,Sonora, Mexico

This paper reports findings from a case study designed to investigate indoor and outdoor air quality in homes near the United States–Mexico border. During the field study, size-resolved continuous particulate matter (PM) concentrations were measured in six homes, while outdoor PM was simultaneously monitored at the same location in Nogales, Sonora, Mexico, during March 14–30, 2009. The purpose of the experiment was to compare PM in homes using different fuels for cooking, gas versus biomass, and to obtain a spatial distribution of outdoor PM in a region where local sources vary significantly (e.g., highway, border crossing, unpaved roads, industry). Continuous PM data were collected every 6 seconds using a valve switching system to sample indoor and outdoor air at each home location. This paper presents the indoor PM data from each home, including the relationship between indoor and outdoor PM. The meteorological conditions associated with elevated ambient PM events in the region are also discussed. Results indicate that indoor air pollution has a strong dependence on cooking fuel, with gas stoves having hourly averaged median PM₃ concentrations in the range of 134 to 157 μg m^?3 and biomass stoves 163 to 504 μg m^?3. Outdoor PM also indicates a large spatial heterogeneity due to the presence of microscale sources and meteorological influences (median PM₃: 130 to 770 μg m^?3). The former is evident in the median and range of daytime PM values (median PM₃: 250 μg m^?3, maximum: 9411 μg m^?3), while the meteorological influences appear to be dominant during nighttime periods (median PM₃: 251 μg m^?3, maximum: 10,846 μg m^?3). The atmospheric stability is quantified for three nighttime temperature inversion episodes, which were associated with an order of magnitude increase in PM10 at the regulatory monitor in Nogales, AZ (maximum increase: 12 to 474 μg m^?3).

Implications:Regulatory air quality standards are based on outdoor ambient air measurements. However, a large fraction of time is typically spent indoors where a variety of activities including cooking, heating, tobacco smoking, and cleaning can lead to elevated PM concentrations. This study investigates the influence of meteorology, outdoor PM, and indoor activities on indoor air pollution (IAP) levels in the United States–Mexico border region. Results indicate that cooking fuel type and meteorology greatly influence the IAP in homes, with biomass fuel use causing the largest increase in PM concentration.     

The relationship between indoor and outdoor airborne particles in the residential environment

The relationship between indoor and outdoor airborne particles was investigated for 16 residential houses located in a suburban area of Brisbane, Australia. The submicrometer particle numbers were measured using the Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer, the larger particle numbers using the Aerodynamic Particle Sizer and an approximation of PM_2.5 was also measured using a DustTrak. The measurements were conducted for normal and minimum ventilation conditions using simultaneous and non-simultaneous measurement methods designed for the purpose of the study. Comparison of the ratios of indoor to outdoor particle concentrations revealed that while temporary values of the ratio vary in a broad range from 0.2 to 2.5 for both lower and higher ventilation conditions, average values of the ratios were very close to one regardless of ventilation conditions and of particle size range. The ratios were in the range from 0.78 to 1.07 for submicrometer particles, from 0.95 to 1.0 for supermicrometer particles and from 1.01 to 1.08 for PM_2.5 fraction. Comparison of the time series of indoor to outdoor particle concentrations shows a clear positive relationship existing for many houses under normal ventilation conditions (estimated to be about and above 2 h⁻¹), but not under minimum ventilation conditions (estimated to be about and below 1 h⁻¹). These results suggest that for normal ventilation conditions, outdoor particle concentrations could be used to predict instantaneous indoor particle concentrations but not for minimum ventilation, unless air exchange rate is known, thus allowing for estimation of the “delay constant”.     

Speciation and diurnal variation of thoracic,fine thoracic and sub-micrometer airborne particulate matter at naturally ventilated office environments

Thoracic (PM₁₀), fine thoracic (PM_2.5) and sub-micrometer (PM₁) airborne particulate matter was sampled during day and night. In total, about 100 indoor and outdoor samples were collected for each fraction at ten different office environments. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and ion chromatography were applied for the quantification of some major and minor elements and ions in the collected aerosols. During daytime, mass concentrations were in the ranges: 11–29, 8.1–24, and 6.6–18 μg m^?3, with averages of 20 ± 1, 15.0 ± 0.9, and 11.0 ± 0.8 μg m^?3, respectively. At night, mass concentrations were found to be significantly lower for all fractions. Indoor PM₁ concentrations exceeded the corresponding outdoor levels during office hours and were thought to be elevated by office printers. Particles with diameters between 1 and 2.5 μm and 2.5 and 10 μm were mainly associated with soil dust elements and were clearly subjected to distinct periods of settling/resuspension. Indoor NO₃^? levels were found to follow specific microclimatic conditions at the office environments, while daytime levels of sub-micrometer Cl^? were possibly elevated by the use of Cl-containing cleaning products. Indoor carbon black concentrations were sometimes as high as 22 μg m^?3 and were strongly correlated with outdoor traffic conditions.