Light Scattering Characteristics of Aerosols at Ambient and as a Function of Relative Humidity: Part II—A Comparison of Measured Scattering and Aerosol Concentrations Using Statistical Models

ABSTRACT

The eastern United States national parks experience some of the worst visibility conditions in the nation. To study these conditions, the Southeastern Aerosol and Visibility Study (SEAVS) was undertaken to characterize the size-dependent composition, thermodynamic properties, and optical characteristics of the ambient atmospheric particles. It is a cooperative three-year study that is sponsored by the National Park Service and the Electric Power Research Institute and its member utilities. The field portion of the study was carried out from July 15 to August 25, 1995.

The study design, instrumental configuration, and estimation of aerosol types from particle measurements is presented in a companion paper. In the companion paper, we compare measurements of scattering at ambient conditions and as functions of relative humidity to theoretical predictions of scattering. In this paper, we make similar comparisons, but using statistical techniques. Statistically derived specific scattering associated with sulfates suggest that a reasonable estimate of sulfate scattering can be arrived at by assuming nominal dry specific scattering and treating the aerosols as an external mixture with ammoniation of sulfate accounted for and by the use of Tang's growth curves to predict water absorption. However, the regressions suggest that the sulfate scattering may be underestimated by about 10%. Regression coefficients on organics, to within the statistical uncertainty of the model, suggest that a reasonable estimate of organic scattering is about 4.0 m²/g.

A new analysis technique is presented, which does not rely on comparing measured to model estimates of scattering to evoke an understanding of ambient aerosol growth properties, but rather relies on measurements of scattering as a function of relative humidity to develop actual estimates of f(RH) curves. The estimates of the study average f(RH) curve for sulfates compares favorably with the theoretical f(RH) curve for ammonium bisulfate, which is in turn consistent with the study average sulfate am-moniation corresponding to a molar ratio of NH₄/SO₄ of approximately one. The f(RH) curve for organics is not significantly different from one, suggesting that organics are weakly to nonhygroscopic.     

Light scattering characteristics of aerosols as a function of relative humidity: Part I--A comparison of measured scattering and aerosol concentrations using the theoretical models

The Southeastern Aerosol and Visibility Study (SEAVS) was undertaken to characterize the size-dependent composition, thermodynamic properties, and optical characteristics of the ambient atmospheric particles in the southeastern United States. The field portion of the study was carried out from July 15 to August 25, 1995. As part of the study a relative humidity controlled inlet was built to raise or lower the relative humidity to predetermined levels before the aerosol was passed into an integrating nephelometer or particle-sizing device. Five other integrating nephelometers were operated in various configurations, two of which were fitted with a 2.5 microns inlet. Fine particle (< 2.5 microns) samplers were operated to measure concentrations of sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium ions, organic and elemental carbon, and fine soil. Mass size distributions were measured with an eight-stage, single orifice cascade impactor. Four different strategies for estimating scattering were used. First, an externally mixed model with constant specific scattering coefficients, sulfate ion mass interpreted as ammonium bisulfate, and ammonium bisulfate growth as a function of relative humidity, is assumed. Second, an externally mixed aerosol model, assuming constant dry specific scattering but with sulfate ammoniation and associated composition-dependent hygroscopicity explicitly accounted for, is used. Third, an externally mixed aerosol model, but with sulfate ammoniation, associated growth as a function of relative humidity, and sulfate size distributions, is applied. Fourth, an internally mixed aerosol model with measured sulfur size distributions and estimated size distributions for other species is used with the growth characteristics of the mixture being estimated using the Zdanovskii-Stokes-Robinson (ZSR) assumptions. Only ionic species were considered to be hygroscopic. The second, third, and fourth approaches yield similar results with reconstructed scattering comparing quite favorably with measured scattering. Accounting for sulfate ammoniation and associated water uptake was the most important detail in achieving closure between measurements and modeled scattering. In general, differences between estimated scattering, assuming internally or externally mixed models, was small. These same models were used to estimate wet to dry scattering ratios. The R2 for an ordinary least-squares regression between measured and predicted ratios was high (0.71-0.92), and in most cases the scattering ratio was insensitive to modeling assumptions. However, during some sample periods differences between predicted scattering ratios for the different modeling assumptions were as high as 30%.     

Aerosol light scattering measurements as a function of relative humidity

The hygroscopic nature of atmospheric fine aerosol was investigated at a rural site in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park during July and August 1995. Passing the sample aerosol through an inlet, which housed an array of Perma Pure diffusion dryers, controlled the sample aerosol's relative humidity (RH). After conditioning the aerosol sample in the inlet, the light scattering coefficient and the aerosol size distribution were simultaneously measured. During this study, the conditioned aerosol's humidity ranged between 5% < RH < 95%. Aerosol response curves were produced using the ratio bspw/bspd; where bspw is the scattering coefficient measured at some RH greater than 20% and bspd is the scattering coefficient of the "dry" aerosol. For this work, any sample RH values below 15% were considered dry. Results of this investigation showed that the light scattering ratio increased continuously and smoothly over the entire range of relative humidity. The magnitude of the ratio at a particular RH value, however, varied considerably in time, particularly for RH values greater than approximately 60%. Curves of the scattering coefficient ratios as a function of RH were generated for each day and compared to the average 12-hour chemical composition of the aerosol. This comparison showed that for any particular RH value the ratio was highest during time periods of high sulfate concentrations and lowest during time periods of high soil or high organic carbon concentrations.     

Hygroscopic organic aerosols during BRAVO?

The hygroscopic properties of the organic fraction of aerosols are poorly understood. The ability of organic aerosols to absorb water as a function of relative humidity (RH) was examined using data collected during the 1999 Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational Study (BRAVO). (On average, organics accounted for 22% of fine particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 microm (PM2.5) mass). Hourly RH exceeded 80% only 3.5% of the time and averaged 44%. BRAVO aerosol chemical composition and dry particle size distributions were used to estimate PM2.5 light scattering (Bsp) at low and high ambient RH. Liquid water growth associated with inorganic species was sufficient to account for measured Bsp for RH between 70 and 95%.     

Hygroscopic Organic Aerosols during BRAVO?

Abstract

The hygroscopic properties of the organic fraction of aerosols are poorly understood. The ability of organic aerosols to absorb water as a function of relative humidity (RH) was examined using data collected during the 1999 Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational Study (BRAVO). (On average, organics accounted for 22% of fine particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 µm (PM_2.5) mass). Hourly RH exceeded 80% only 3.5% of the time and averaged 44%. BRAVO aerosol chemical composition and dry particle size distributions were used to estimate PM_2.5 light scattering (Bsp) at low and high ambient RH. Liquid water growth associated with inorganic species was sufficient to account for measured Bsp for RH between 70 and 95%.     

Open-path,closed-path,and reconstructed aerosol extinction at a rural site

The Handix Scientific open-path cavity ringdown spectrometer (OPCRDS) was deployed during summer 2016 in Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GRSM). Extinction coefficients from the relatively new OPCRDS and from a more well-established extinction instrument agreed to within 7%. Aerosol hygroscopic growth (f(RH)) was calculated from the ratio of ambient extinction measured by the OPCRDS to dry extinction measured by a closed-path extinction monitor (Aerodyne’s cavity-attenuated phase shift particulate matter extinction monitor [CAPS PMex]). Derived hygroscopicity (relative humidity [RH] < 95%) from this campaign agreed with data from 1995 at the same site and time of year, which is noteworthy given the decreasing trend for organics and sulfate in the eastern United States. However, maximum f(RH) values in 1995 were less than half as large as those recorded in 2016—possibly due to nephelometer truncation losses in 1995. Two hygroscopicity parameterizations were investigated using high-time-resolution OPCRDS+CAPS PMex data, and the κ_ext model was more accurate than the gamma model. Data from the two ambient optical instruments, the OPCRDS and the open-path nephelometer, generally agreed; however, significant discrepancies between ambient scattering and extinction were observed, apparently driven by a combination of hygroscopic growth effects, which tend to increase nephelometer truncation losses and decrease sensitivity to the wavelength difference between the two instruments as a function of particle size. There was not a statistically significant difference in the mean reconstructed extinction values obtained from the original and the revised IMPROVE (Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments) equations. On average, IMPROVE reconstructed extinction was ~25% lower than extinction measured by the OPCRDS, which suggests that the IMPROVE equations and 24-hr aerosol data are moderately successful in estimating current haze levels at GRSM. However, this conclusion is limited by the coarse temporal resolution and the low dynamic range of the IMPROVE reconstructed extinction.

Implications: Although light extinction, which is directly related to visibility, is not directly measured in U.S. National Parks, existing IMPROVE protocols can be used to accurately infer visibility for average humidity conditions, but during the large fraction of the year when humidity is above or below average, accuracy is reduced substantially. Furthermore, nephelometers, which are used to assess the accuracy of IMPROVE visibility estimates, may themselves be biased low when humidity is very high. Despite reductions in organic and sulfate particles since the 1990s, hygroscopicity, particles’ affinity for water, appears unchanged, although this conclusion is weakened by the previously mentioned nephelometer limitations.     

Aerosol light scattering measurements as a function of relative humidity: a comparison between measurements made at three different sites

The water uptake by fine aerosol particles in the atmosphere has been investigated at three rural National Parks in the United States (Great Smoky Mountains, Grand Canyon and Big Bend National Parks). The relative humidity (RH) of sample aerosols was varied from less than 20% to greater than 90% using Perma Pure drying tubes as the scattering coefficient of the aerosol was measured with a Radiance Research M903 nephelometer. Data from these studies show that growth curves at all the three sites are similar in shape but the magnitude of growth can vary considerably from day to day. The growth curves from Great Smoky Mountains show smooth continuous growth over the entire range of RH, while the growth curves from the Grand Canyon and Big Bend show smooth and continuous growth on some days and deliquescence on other days. Comparing 12-h filter samples of chemical composition data with the aerosol growth curves, we find that higher fractions of soluble inorganic compounds (sulfate and nitrate) produce growth curves of greater magnitude than do higher concentrations of either organic carbon or soil material.     

PM2.5 mass and light extinction reconstruction in IMPROVE

Compliance under the Regional Haze Rule of 1999 is based on Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) protocols for reconstructing aerosol mass and light extinction from aerosol chemical concentrations measured in the IMPROVE network. The accuracy, consistency, and potential biases in these formulations were examined using IMPROVE aerosol chemistry and light extinction data from 1988-1999. Underestimation of particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter < 2.5 microm (PM2.5) by the IMPROVE mass reconstruction formula by 12%, on average, appears to be related to the exclusion of sodium, chlorine, and other elements and to artifacts associated with the measurement of organic carbon, but not to absorption of water by sulfates and nitrates on IMPROVE Teflon filters during weighing. Light scattering measured by transmissometry is not consistent with nephelometer scattering or single-scatter albedos expected for remote locations. Light scattering was systematically overestimated by 34%, on average, with the IMPROVE particle scattering (Bsp) reconstruction formula. The use of climatologically based hygroscopic growth factors f(RH) suggested for compliance with the Haze Rule contributes significantly to this overestimation and increases the amount of light extinction attributable to sulfates for IMPROVE samples between 1993 and 1999 by 5 percentage points.     

Optical properties of the San Joaquin Valley aerosol collected during the 1995 integrated monitoring study

Optical, filter chemistry, and cascade impactor data collected during the winter intensive of the IMS95 Study in the San Joaquin Valley (SJV) of California were analyzed to determine the light-extinction efficiency of aerosol species. Regression of light scattering by particles (b_sp) measured by a heated nephelometer without a size selective inlet against PM_2.5 front filter mass gave a scattering efficiency of 3.67±0.05 m²/g with an R² (fraction of variance explained) of 0.94. Division of the aerosol into two components and applying two different corrections to the filter data for nitrate and organic carbon on the backup filter gave scattering efficiencies of 3.7±0.3 or 4.1±0.2 m²/g for the salts composed of sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium and 2.9±0.2 or 3.1±0.2 m²/g for all other species with R² of 0.985 and 0.986. The ambient b_sp measured by an open nephelometer was a simple function of PM_2.5 mass and relative humidity (RH), giving R² of 0.90 and 0.88 for two different RH sensors. Variations in PM_2.5 size distribution and composition did not have an important effect on ambient b_sp. The RH data from each sensor were repeatable enough to show the existence of a simple dependence of aerosol water uptake on RH, but RH sensor calibration uncertainties prevented determining this dependence. Inversion of MOUDI cascade impactor data gave sulfate and nitrate mass median diameters (MMD) between 0.4 and 0.8 μm. Mie scattering calculations based on MOUDI data provided humidity-dependent extinction efficiencies for the principal aerosol chemical species. These efficiencies combined with particle filter data showed that ammonium nitrate was the dominant contributor to wintertime light extinction. Source apportionment showed that light extinction was dominated by emissions sources contributing to the formation of secondary species, especially nitrate. These wintertime data are not expected to apply to summertime in the SJV.     

The effect of water on gas–particle partitioning of secondary organic aerosol. Part I: α-pinene/ozone system

The effect of relative humidity (RH) on aerosol formation by the semi-volatile oxidation products of the α-pinene/O₃ system has been comprehensively studied. Experiments were performed in the presence of ammonium sulfate (aqueous, dry), ammonium bisulfate seed (aqueous, dry), and aqueous calcium chloride seed aerosols to ascertain their effect on the partitioning of the oxidation products. The yield of organic aerosol varies little with RH, and is not affected by the presence of dry inorganic salt aerosols. Aqueous salt aerosols reduce the yield of organic aerosol compared to that under seed-free or dry seed conditions. The degree of reduction is electrolyte dependent, with aqueous ammonium sulfate leading to the largest reduction and aqueous calcium chloride the smallest. Hygroscopic growth of the organic aerosol from <2% to 85% RH was also monitored, and could be satisfactorily represented as the sum of the individual contributions of the organic and inorganic fractions. The implications of the growth factor measurements for concentration/activity relationships of the condensed phase organic material (assuming a liquid solution) was explored. The formation of the organic aerosol was investigated using a simple two component model, and also one including the 12 product compounds identified in a previous study. The experimental results for <2% and 50% RH (without salt seed aerosols) could be satisfactorily predicted. However, the aqueous salt seed aerosols are predicted to increase the overall yield due to the dissolution of the organic compounds into the water associated with the seed aerosol—the opposite effect to that observed. The implications of two distinct phases existing the aerosol phase were investigated.     

The effect of water on gas–particle partitioning of secondary organic aerosol: II. m-xylene and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene photooxidation systems

An investigation of the effect of relative humidity on aerosol formation from m-xylene and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene photooxidation is reported. Experiments were performed in the presence and absence of ammonium sulfate seed particles (both aqueous and dry) to ascertain the effect of partitioning of oxidation products into a strong electrolytic solution or onto dry crystalline seed particles. In marked contrast to the α-pinene/ozone system, the final measured secondary organic aerosol yield was unaffected by the presence of gas-phase or liquid-phase water at relative humidities (RH) up to 50%. The hygroscopic nature of the aerosol generated upon photooxidation of m-xylene and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene was examined; the hygroscopicity of the aerosol at 85% RH for both parent organics increased with the extent of the reaction, indicating that the first-generation oxidation products undergo further oxidation. Limited identification of the gas- and aerosol-phase products of m-xylene and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene photooxidation is reported. It is evident that a more complete molecular identification of aromatic photooxidation aerosol awaits analytical techniques not yet brought to bear on this problem.     

Sampling at controlled relative humidity with a cascade impactor

The design and function of a device that regulates the relative humidity of an ambient aerosol sample is described. We use this RH controller upstream of MOUDI impactors to permit sampling at relative humidities in the 70–80% range. Humidity control is achieved by allowing the aerosol to approach equilibrium with a saturated salt solution. Benefits to sampling with impactors in this relative humidity range include greatly reduced bounce of fine, hygroscopic particles, minimal flow-induced sizing errors, and minimization of uncertainties in measured size distributions due to diurnal variations in relative humidity during sampling. Data from field measurements in a humid environment (Look Rock, TN) and arid environments (Las Vegas, NV and Meadview, AZ) are discussed.     

APCA Financial Statements for FY 1979-80

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has proposed a new secondary standard based on visibility in urban areas. The proposed standard will be based on light extinction, calculated from 24-hr averaged measurements. It would be desirable to base the standard on a shorter averaging time to better represent human perception of visibility. This could be accomplished by either an estimation of extinction from semicontinuous particulate matter (PM) data or direct measurement of scattering and absorption. To this end we have compared 1-hr measurements of fine plus coarse particulate scattering using a nephelometer, along with an estimate of absorption from aethalometer measurements. The study took place in Lindon, UT, during February and March 2012. The nephelometer measurements were corrected for coarse particle scattering and compared to the Filter Dynamic Measurement System (FDMS) tapered element oscillating microbalance monitor (TEOM) PM_2.5 measurements. The two measurements agreed with a mass scattering coefficient of 3.3 ± 0.3 m²/g at relative humidity below 80%. However, at higher humidity, the nephelometer gave higher scattering results due to water absorbed by ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate in the particles. This particle-associated water is not measured by the FDMS TEOM. The FDMS TEOM data could be corrected for this difference using appropriate IMPROVE protocols if the particle composition is known. However, a better approach may be to use a particle measurement system that allows for semicontinuous measurements but also measures particle bound water. Data are presented from a 2003 study in Rubidoux, CA, showing how this could be accomplished using a Grimm model 1100 aerosol spectrometer or comparable instrument.

Implications: Visibility is currently based on 24-hr averaged PM mass and composition. A metric that captures diurnal changes would better represent human perception. Furthermore, if the PM measurement included aerosol bound water, this would negate the need to know particulate composition and relative humidity (RH), which is currently used to estimate visibility. Methods are outlined that could accomplish both of these objectives based on use of a PM monitor that includes aerosol-bound water. It is recommended that these techniques, coupled with appropriate measurements of light scattering and absorption by aerosols, be evaluated for potential use in the visibility based secondary standard.     

Estimates of particle hygroscopicity during the Southeastern Aerosol and Visibility Study

Aerosol water content was determined from relative humidity controlled optical particle counter (ASASP-X) size distribution measurements made during the Southeastern Aerosol and Visibility Study (SEAVS) in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park during summer 1995. Since the scattering response function of the ASASP-X is sensitive to particle refractive index, a technique for calibrating the ASASP-X for any real refractive index was developed. A new iterative process was employed to calculate water mass concentration and wet refractive index as functions of relative humidity. Experimental water mass concentrations were compared to theoretically predicted values assuming only ammonium sulfate compounds were hygroscopic. These comparisons agreed within experimental uncertainty. Estimates of particle hygroscopicity using a rural aerosol model of refractive index as a function of relative humidity demonstrated no significant differences from those made with daily varying refractive index estimates. Although aerosol size parameters were affected by the assumed chemical composition, forming ratios of these parameters nearly canceled these effects.     

Estimates of Particle Hygroscopicity during the Southeastern Aerosol and Visibility Study

ABSTRACT

Aerosol water content was determined from relative humidity controlled optical particle counter (ASASP-X) size distribution measurements made during the Southeastern Aerosol and Visibility Study (SEAVS) in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park during summer 1995. Since the scattering response function of the ASASP-X is sensitive to particle refractive index, a technique for calibrating the ASASP-X for any real refractive index was developed. A new iterative process was employed to calculate water mass concentration and wet refractive index as functions of relative humidity. Experimental water mass concentrations were compared to theoretically predicted values assuming only ammonium sulfate compounds were hygroscopic. These comparisons agreed within experimental uncertainty. Estimates of particle hygroscopicity using a rural aerosol model of refractive index as a function of relative humidity demonstrated no significant differences from those made with daily varying refractive index estimates. Although aerosol size parameters were affected by the assumed chemical composition, forming ratios of these parameters nearly canceled these effects.     

Aerosol light-scattering in The Netherlands

The relation between the (midday) aerosol light-scattering and the concentrations of nitrate and sulfate has been assessed at a site near the coast of the North Sea in The Netherlands. Midday was selected for the measurements because this is the time at which the aerosol is most effective in the scattering of solar radiation. Automated thermodenuders were used for the hourly measurement of the concentration of nitrate and sulfate with a lower detection limit of 0.1 μ m⁻³. The site is operational since October 1993. The first-year average dry aerosol light-scattering (measured with an integrating nephelometer at a wavelength of 525 nm) was 0.71 × 10⁻⁴ m^1&#x0304;. In arctic marine air the aerosol light-scattering was a factor of 10 lower than the average value, in polluted continental air it was up to a factor of 10 higher. The ratio of the total aerosol light-scattering to the concentration of sulfate was 20 m² g⁻¹. The contribution of nitrate to the aerosol light-scattering was higher than that of sulfate in the winter and of about equal magnitude in the summer period. In November and December of 1993, the humidity dependence of the aerosol light-scattering was investigated. Two types of (continental) aerosol were found with respect to the humidity behavior. One type showed a significant increase in light-scattering at the deliquescence points of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate, with that of ammonium nitrate the most pronounced. The second type of continental aerosol did not show deliquescence, but followed the typical humidity dependence of aerosol in a supersaturated droplet state. In this latter aerosol type, nitrate dominated over sulfate. It was concluded from the study that the aerosol light-scattering in The Netherlands, in particular its humidity dependence, is governed by (ammonium) nitrate.     

Evaluation of the IMPROVE Equation for estimating aerosol light extinction

The [revised] IMPROVE Equation for estimating light extinction from aerosol chemical composition was evaluated considering new measurements at U.S. national parks. Compared with light scattering (Bsp) measured at seven IMPROVE sites with nephelometer data from 2003–2012, the [revised] IMPROVE Equation over- and underestimated Bsp in the lower and upper quintiles, respectively, of measured Bsp. Underestimation of the worst visibility cases (upper quintile) was reduced by assuming an organic mass (OM)/organic carbon (OC) ratio of 2.1 and hygroscopic growth of OM, based on results from previous field studies. This assumption, however, tended to overestimate low Bsp even more. Assuming that sulfate was present as ammonium bisulfate rather than as ammonium sulfate uniformly reduced estimated Bsp. The split-mode model of concentration- and size-dependent dry mass scattering efficiencies in the [revised] IMPROVE Equation does not eliminate systematic biases in estimated Bsp. While the new measurements of OM/OC and OM hygroscopicity should be incorporated into future iterations of the IMPROVE Equation, the problem is not well constrained due to a lack of routine measurements of sulfate neutralization and the water-soluble fraction of OM in the IMPROVE network.

Implications: Studies in U.S. national parks showed that aerosol organics contain more mass and absorb more water as a function of relative humidity than is currently assumed by the IMPROVE Equation for calculating chemical light extinction. Consideration of these results could significantly shift the apportionment of light extinction to water-soluble organic aerosols and therefore better inform pollution control strategies under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Regional Haze Rule.     

Fine particulate chemical composition and light extinction at Meadview, AZ

The concentration of fine particulate nitrate, sulfate, and carbonaceous material was measured for 12-hr day-night samples using diffusion denuder samplers during the Project Measurement of Haze and Visibility Effects (MOHAVE) July to August 1992 Summer Intensive study at Meadview, AZ, just west of Grand Canyon National Park. Organic material was measured by several techniques. Only the diffusion denuder method measured the semivolatile organic material. Fine particulate sulfate and nitrate (using denuder technology) determined by various groups agreed. Based on the various collocated measurements obtained during the Project MOHAVE study, the precision of the major fine particulate species was +/- 0.6 microg/m3 organic material, +/- 0.3 microg/m3 ammonium sulfate, and +/- 0.07 microg/m3 ammonium nitrate. Data were also available on fine particulate crustal material, fine and coarse particulate mass from the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments sampling system, and relative humidity (RH), light absorption, particle scattering, and light extinction measurements from Project MOHAVE. An extinction budget was obtained using mass scattering coefficients estimated from particle size distribution data. Literature data were used to estimate the change in the mass scattering coefficients for the measured species as a function of RH and for the absorption of light by elemental carbon. Fine particulate organic material was the principal particulate contributor to light extinction during the study period, with fine particulate sulfate as the second most important contributor. During periods of highest light extinction, contributions from fine particulate organic material, sulfate, and light-absorbing carbon dominated the extinction of light by particles. Particle light extinction was dominated by sulfate and organic material during periods of lowest light extinction. Combination of the extinction data and chemical mass balance analysis of sulfur oxides sources in the region indicate that the major anthropogenic contributors to light extinction were from the Los Angeles, CA, and Las Vegas, NV, urban areas. Mohave Power Project associated secondary sulfate was a negligible contributor to light extinction.     

Electrostatic enhancement of collection efficiency of the fibrous filter pretreated with ionic surfactants

A study of the electrostatic enhancement of collection efficiency of filters pretreated with ionic surfactants has been carried out in controlled conditions with monodisperse aerosols. Cationic surfactant (dimethyl dioctadecylammonium bromide [DDAB]) and anionic surfactant (sodium oleate [SO]) were used to pretreat polypropylene fibrous filters as the positively and negatively charged filters, respectively. The effects of aerosol size, aerosol charge state, face velocity, aerosol type, and relative humidity (RH) were considered to elucidate their influence on the aerosol penetration. Results indicate that penetration through surfactant-pretreated filters was lower than that through untreated filters, and pretreatment of the filter with surfactant was observed not to affect the structure of the filter. The electrofieldmeter direct-measured the very clear electric field of filter when treating ionic surfactants. The results proved that pretreatment with surfactant caused filters to become charged. Comparing penetration through surfactant-pretreated filters with that through untreated filters with neutral aerosol, the penetration reduction factor of the surfactant-pretreated filters was in the range 1.3-2.2. Comparing aerosol penetration through the surfactant-pretreated filters with singly charged aerosol with that through untreated filters with uncharged aerosol indicates that the former decreases by a factor of 1.8-48.8. The surface fiber charges of the DDAB- and SO-pretreated filters were calculated to be 2.02 x 1(-10) C/m and -1.53 x 10(-1) degrees C/m. Moreover, the aerosol penetrations through the surfactant-pretreated filters increased with the face velocity. Surfactant-pretreated filters performed better against solid aerosol than against liquid aerosol. RH has no effect on aerosol penetration through the surfactant-pretreated filters. Regression equations for Coulombic and dielectrophoretic single-fiber efficiencies in terms of the dimensionless parameters could be fitted by the experimental measurements of surfactant-pretreated filters in this work.     

Analysis and simulation of wintertime light scattering by the urban aerosol in Dallas-Fort Worth

Wintertime atmospheric light scattering in Dallas, TX, was estimated through the use of aerosol models. Input data for the aerosol models were provided by measurements of aerosol chemistry, physical particle size distributions, and distributions of particulate sulfur by particle size, and by predictions by an atmospheric simulation model. Light scattering measurements provided a basis for testing the aerosol models. The SCAPE thermodynamic equilibrium model was used to estimate the amount of liquid water associated with particles and the ELSIE Mie scattering model was applied to estimate the resulting light scattering. The calculations were based on aerosol properties measured in Dallas during December 1994 and February 1995, and changes in scattering due to hypothetical changes in the aerosol were predicted. The predicted light scattering was compared to scattering measured by an Optec nephelometer; agreement was within 20% in every case.