Trade, technology, and the environment: Does access to technology promote environmental regulation?

Focusing specifically on regulation of coal-fired power plants, we examine how technological innovation by early adopters influences the timing of new environmental regulation in non-innovating countries. We build a general equilibrium model of an open economy to identify the political-economy determinants of regulation. With a newly created dataset of SO₂ and NO_x regulations for coal-fired power plants and a patent-based measure of the technology frontier, we estimate the determinants of environmental regulation diffusion. Our findings support the hypothesis that international economic integration eases access to environmentally friendly technologies and leads to earlier adoption, ceteris paribus, of regulation in non-innovating countries. However, we also find evidence that domestic trade protection promotes earlier adoption allowing shifts of regulatory costs to domestic consumers. Furthermore, international market power permits large countries to shift costs to foreign consumers. Other political economy factors, such as the quality of domestic coal, are also important determinants.     

The environmental effects of trade within and across sectors

This paper presents a model that combines within and across sector channels through which trade affects our environment by embedding heterogeneous firms and fixed costs into a two-sector framework with an endogenous response to environmental policy. In contrast to existing literature that tends to examine these channels separately, the combined framework developed here shows how cross-sector comparative advantage and within-sector responses to trade and environmental policy or factor endowments interact to affect our environment through three channels: changes in output, cross-sector market share, and emissions intensity. In contrast to a single-sector model with neutral productivity, consideration of two sectors allows for trade liberalization to affect the allocation of inputs in each sector and thereby affect total pollution output. The additional consideration of heterogeneous firm responses to falling trade costs will generate endogenous increases in productivity that increase output, reduce aggregate emissions intensity, and moderate the cross-sector resource adjustment, relative to a representative-firm model. Simulation results show how the combined framework can replicate existing empirical outcomes, and provide concise ceteris paribus insights regarding the potential role of trade and environmental policy changes and factor expansion in driving observed outcomes and their contribution to each of the three channels.     

An empirical analysis of economic strategies for controlling air pollution

In evaluating current environmental protection policy, economists often note that current regulations are more costly than necessary to meet environmental quality standards. While the a priori case is strong that current regulatory approaches are resulting in higher-than-necessary costs to attain environmental standards, there is relatively little empirical evidence to support this claim. The purpose of this paper is to supply some of the missing evidence by presenting the results of one study that assesses some of the potential savings associated with implementing economic, rather than command-and-control, regulatory approaches to abate one type of air pollution in one region of the country. Specifically, the paper examines the costs of meeting a prospective short-term standard for nitrogen dioxide under a range of alternative emissions control strategies for stationary sources of nitrogen oxide emissions in the Chicago Air Quality Control Region. The alternative strategies that are considered range from those that might result under current regulatory policy to those that economic policy approaches (such as emissions charges or marketable permits) are designed to implement. The analysis shows that the most efficient program of emissions controls may be more than an order of magnitude less costly than current regulatory strategies, and that economic approaches have additional advantages over more conventional regulatory approaches.     

Too hot to handle: The effects of high temperatures during pregnancy on adult welfare outcomes

This paper studies the long-term effects of high temperatures during pregnancy on later-life outcomes for Chinese adults. Adults experienced one additional high-temperature day during in utero period, on average, attain 0.02 fewer years of schooling, increase the risk of illiteracy by 0.18%, achieve lower standardized word-test score by 0.48%, and are shorter by 0.02 cm. The impacts are greater in the first and second trimesters. Additionally, we find that income effects represent one important channel to explain the adverse effects of hot weather. Back-of-the-envelope predictions suggest that by the end of the 21st century, a 0.14–0.54 reduction in years of education and a 0.21–0.84 cm reduction in height is likely to result from climate change, ceteris paribus.     

Beziehungen zwischen Körperbau und Lebensweise bei Blenniidae (Pisces) aus dem Roten Meer. I. Äußere morphologie

The external morphology of 5 species of salariin Blenniidae has been examined. Differences have been established between Salarias fasciatus living in the sublittoral, Antennablennius hypenetes, Istiblennius edentulus and I. flaviumbrinus inhabiting the eulittoral zone, and, especially, Alticus kirkii living on steep rocks of the supralittoral zone. The rays of the anal and (partly) pectoral fins terminate in little hooks; these are most pronounced in A. kirkii and least developed in S. jasciatus. The pelvic fins are short and broad in A. kirkii, but long and slender in the other 4 species. These structures make it possible to cling to uneven substrates. Fins are protected from rough rocks by a well developed cuticula; this is thickest in A. kirkii. Respiratory organs, adapted to function on land, have been discovered in the form of cutaneous blood vessels on the heads and the bodies of A. kirkii, and (less numerous and less developed) in I. edentulus and I. flaviumbrinus. Sensory organs have become specialized in A. kirkii; the eyes protude from the head, and the lateral line is reduced to a small relict. S. fasciatus and A. kirkii must be regarded as terminal representatives of a sequence of development which followed a trend toward the amphibian way of life.     

Hunger-driven response by a nectar-eating jumping spider to specific phytochemicals

The jumping spider Evarcha culicivora (Salticidae) has unusual links to Lantana camara, a plant species to which it is attracted. Three phytochemicals from the headspace of L. camara (1,8 cineole and especially β-caryophyllene and α-humulene) attract adult E. culicivora. These spiders, especially early-instar juveniles, feed on nectar, but adults may use L. camara as mating sites. The hypothesis we consider here is that, for E. culicivora juveniles, although not for adults, responding to plant odor is relevant in the specific context of acquiring nectar meals. We show that juveniles resemble adults by responding to β-caryophyllene and α-humulene, but we found no significant attraction of juveniles to 1,8 cineole. We also show that, compared to sated E. culicivora juveniles, juveniles subjected to a 5-day pre-trial fast responded more strongly to living L. camara plants and to β-caryophyllene and α-humulene, but we found no significant effect of hunger level on response by adults to living plants. These results suggest that attraction to L. camara may have different functions for E. culicivora depending on the stage of its life history.     

Identification of archaeogastropod larvae from a hydrothermal vent community

Dispersal is essential in order that endemic species living in ephemeral, patchy vent environments may persist over evolutionary time. Quantitative field studies of larval dispersal, however, require specieslevel identification of the larval forms because each individual must be distinguished from related vent species, and from non-vent species living in the surrounding deep-sea environment. Methods for culturing these larvae to an identifiable stage have not yet been developed. To solve the larval identification problem for the archaeogastropod molluscs (a prominent component of vent communities), we used a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to image shells of larvae collected in the water column near vents along the East Pacific Rise (9°40′ to 9°50′N; 104°W). Larval shell size, shape and ornamentation were compared to protoconchs retained in juvenile or adult shells of identified species, and used to assign five larval groups unequivocally to species (Cyathermia naticoides Warén and Bouchet, 1989; Neomphalus fretterae McLean, 1981; Clypeosectus delectus McLean, 1989; Rhynchopelta concentrica McLean, 1989; and Lirapex granularis Warén and Bouchet, 1989) and seven groups tentatively to species or genus [Lepetodrilus spp. (three groups); Gorgoleptis sp; Peltospira ?operculata McLean, 1989; and ?Melanodrymia sp. (two groups)].     

Raumkonkurrenz bei Ätzmuscheln

Space competition is documented in lithophages, off the Istrian coast (North Adriatic Sea). Due to high population-density, borehole crossings occur. Spatial relationships between competing bivalves determine which one will be successful, or whether competition remains undecided and “stenomorphs” (Bartsch, 1923, as quoted by Turner, 1955) are formed. There is no spatial competition in gastrochaenes in the area investigated, but probably in petricoles. In areas best suited to its own living requirements, e.g. steep and overhanging “declivium”, Lithophaga lithophaga represses Gastrochaena dubia and Petricola lithophaga.     

Die Ektoplasmahülle von Heterostegina depressa (Foraminifera:Nummulitidae)

The structure of the rigid ectoplasm sheath was studied in living individuals of the large foraminifer Heterostegina depressa d'Orbigny 1826 (Nummulitidae). H. depressa is able to form pseudopods, which emerge from the marginal cord within a few minutes. Normally, however, the living test is entirely covered by a rigid hyalin elastic sheath, which is fixed to the substrate by terminally branched processes. In older individuals, the sheath is often incomplete and restricted to the marginal cord only. Probably, the sheath is secreted by the ectoplasm which fills the canal system of the chamber walls and the marginal cord, or it consists of transformed ectoplasm; we call it “Ektoplasmahülle”, and the processes radiating to all sides, “Ruhepseudopodien”. H. depressa is able to move while inside the elastic sheath by means of pseudopods which penetrate the sheath and attach themselves to the substrate out-side. In the same manner, H. depressa leaves a complete sheath by disrupting it through the tractive powers of the pseudopods. The procedure of breaking the sheath is described. Locomotion when leaving the sheath is performed in a zigzag manner (alternating action of several pseudopods). The sheath counteracts transportation by water movement and protects chamber formation (which takes place inside the sheath). Due to its symbiotic unicellular algae, H. depressa does not need to collect food particles; hence locomotion seems unneccssary. The formation of a rigid ectoplasm sheath may be connected with H. depressa's sessile mode of life.     

Measuring natural resource scarcity: Theory and practice

Concern over the implications of natural resource availability for economic well-being has been among the most long-lived policy issues involving economists. Scarcity and Growth by Barnett and Morse has remained the most influential evaluation of these issues. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the Barnett-Morse methodology. Using the results from comparative static and dynamic models three scarcity indexes are evaluated for their consistency in signaling changes in the availability of natural resources. In addition, the paper reports a reconsideration of the movements in the relative prices of extractive outputs to 1973. This analysis indicates that the empirical evidence alone is not sufficient to arrive at a conclusion as to whether there is increasing scarcity of natural resources.     

Cooperative web sharing against predators promotes group living in spider mites

I examined spider mite cooperative web sharing against predation as a factor promoting group living. Tetranychus urticae and Tetranychus kanzawai infest leaf surfaces under webs made of silk threads. Experimental observation of predation by the predatory mite Euseius sojaensis on spider mites of different group sizes revealed that fewer spider mites were preyed upon when the web-building period before the attack was prolonged, suggesting that established webs help protect spider mites. Moreover, per capita predation on spider mites was diluted in larger groups. This was not due to predator satiation but seemingly because webs had been completed while the initial prey was consumed. Spider mites lived more closely together in the presence of a predator, showing that the degree of group living is facultative. In the presence of a preceding spider mite with an established web, a newcomer spider mite gain protection by taking residence in the established webs; sharing the web was not disadvantageous for the preceding mite. The proportion of individuals preyed upon did not differ between preceding and newcomer mites, suggesting that there was no interference against the latter. These interactions were consistent between heterospecific spider mites. Because there was no detectable indirect interaction between mites sharing fresh webs, cooperative web sharing seemed to be a major force promoting group living in the spider mites. Moreover, the distances between spider mites did not differ between heterospecific and conspecific groups, demonstrating that mites living together do not distinguish between species; hence, heterospecific mites may cooperate and live together in the same manner as conspecifics.     

Assessment of canopy stomatal conductance models using flux measurements

Stomatal conductance (g) is a key parameter in controlling energy and water exchanges between canopy and the atmosphere. Stomatal conductance models proposed by Ball, Woodrow and Berry (BWB) and Leuning have been increasingly used in land surface schemes. In a recent study, a new diagnostic index was developed by Wang et al. to examine the response of g to humidity and new models were proposed to resolve problems identified in the BWB and Leuning models. This approach is theoretically sound, but relies on canopy latent heat and CO₂ fluxes and environmental variables at the leaf surface which are not available at most eddy correlation (EC) observation sites. In this study, we tested the diagnostic index by empirically correcting EC measurements to canopy-level fluxes and by replacing leaf surface variables by their corresponding ambient air variables, and re-examined the stomatal conductance models of BWB, Leuning, and Wang et al. We found that the impact of the above modifications on the evaluation of g–humidity relationships is very small. This study provides a practical approach to investigate the stomatal response to humidity using routine EC measurements.     

Ecosystems emerging. 5: Constraints

Ecosystem constraints are both ontic and epistemic. They limit activity, and as problems to be solved they drive organization, which is our hypothesis:

The driver of organization is constraint.

Solutions proliferate further constraints in an unending spiral of problem (constraint) generation and solution. As constraints proliferate, behavior narrows, and species diversify to compensate (paradox of constraint). Resource enrichment reduces constraints, releases behavior, and reduction of challenges decreases diversity (paradox of enrichment)—high diversity is expressed in low-resource environments and low diversity in high-resource environments. A three-part model of constraints is formulated for non-living systems, and also for goal-directed, problem-solving biota. Mode 1: dynamical means behavior is co-determined by internal states and external inputs. Mode 2: cybernetic employs negative feedback to keep dynamics within goal-oriented operating limits. Mode 3: model-making entails ability to represent (model) physical reality and respond to both phenomenal (modeled) and physical inputs; this property distinguishes living from nonliving systems. Principal sections of the paper elaborate dynamical constraints (three classes), boundary constraints (expressed in edge effects and trophic dynamics), physical constraints (space, time, temperature), chemical constraints (environment fitness, ecological stoichiometry, chemical evolution, limiting factors), coding constraints (environmental vs. genetic coding), network and pathway constraints (connectivity), and natural selection constraints (fitting to the biosphere). Consideration of how the world would look without constraints suggests how fundamental these are in ecosystem emergence, and how the next property in this series, differentiation, would be unmotivated without them. We conclude that constraints as a category are under-studied in ecology, poorly understood in ecological phenomenology, and (our hypothesis) comprise a ubiquitous organizing force in nature.     

Impact of gasoline engine deposits on light duty vehicle emissions: in-use case study in Beijing, China

Tailpipe emissions from light-duty gasoline vehicles usually deteriorate over time. The accumulation of engine deposits due to inadequate gasoline detergency is considered to be one of the major causes of such emission deterioration. Six in-use light-duty gasoline vehicles in Beijing were tested to investigate the impact of engine deposits on emissions of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NO _x ). Emissions under cold start and hot running test conditions from the six light duty vehicles were measured before and after engine deposits were removed. Results show that although individual vehicles reacted differently for each of the pollutants, elimination of engine deposits on average reduced HC emissions under hot running conditions by 29.4%, CO emissions under cold start conditions by 23.0% and CO emissions under hot running conditions by 35.5% (t < 0.05 in all cases). No pollutant emissions increased with statistical significance (t < 0.05) after the removal of engine deposits. Variations of emission changes upon removal of engine deposits were observed. Such variations are in line with previous studies, implying that the impact patterns of engine deposits on vehicle emissions may be subject to many influencing factors that are not fully understood and difficult to control under all conditions. A statistical view of the impact of engine deposits on vehicle emissions may be appropriate for evaluation of emissions reductions across a city or a country. It is necessary to maintain sufficient and effective gasoline fuel detergency in practice to keep the engines clean and in turn reduce vehicle emissions.     

Comparing species abundance models

Five regression models (Poisson, negative binomial, quasi-Poisson, the hurdle model and the zero-inflated Poisson) were used to assess the relationship between the abundance of a vulnerable plant species, Leionema ralstonii, and the environment. The methods differed in their capacity to deal with common properties of ecological data. They were assessed theoretically, and their predictive performance was evaluated with correlation, calibration and error statistics calculated within a bootstrap evaluation procedure that simulated performance for independent data.     

The false limpet Siphonaria gigas, a simultaneous hermaphrodite, lives in pairs in rock fissures on the Pacific coast of Panama

The pulmonate limpet Siphonaria gigas, a simultaneous hermaphrodite, lives in the mid- to upper-intertidal zone on rocky shores in the tropical Eastern Pacific. Samples along five transects taken in June–July, 2004, on Culebra Point (8º54′N to 79º31′W), Republic of Panama, showed that 71 % of the population occurred in fissures, a significant preference for this habitat. Of 200 adults in 27 fissures, 150 lived side by side in pairs with their shells touching or nearly so, a significant deviation from the number of pairs expected given a random arrangement. Pair frequency did not increase with limpet density suggesting pairing was not an incidental consequence of crowding. Pair living was unknown in the genus Siphonaria, and is very uncommon among simultaneous hermaphrodites. Reproductive synchrony and restrictions on movement due to predation and environmental stress may limit opportunities for encountering and mating with multiple partners favoring pair living in S. gigas.     

Averting behavior and the benefits of reduced soiling

The individual's choice of cleaning frequency is examined theoretically under assumptions more general than those of previous authors. The individual is assumed to maximize utility over “cleanliness” and a general commodity, where cleanliness is determined by frequency of cleaning and ambient pollution. Allowance is made for the possibility that the cost per cleaning episode is positively affected by pollution and negatively affected by the frequency of cleaning. The present framework is used to make comparisons and comments regarding the assumptions and results of Watson and Jaksch [J. Environ. Econ. Manag.9 (1982), 248–262] and Courant and Porter [J. Environ. Econ. Manag.8 (1981), 321–329].     

In situ beziehungen zwischen nahrungsangebot und aufgenommener Nahrung bei 5 Blennius-Arten (Pisces) des Mittelmeeres

Eight epiphytal samples were taken from the upper littoral at Banyuls-sur-Mer (French Mediterranean coast) and the fauna living on the thalli of algae or between bivalves was examined. Intestinal food contents of 67 specimens of 5 Blennius species (B. trigloides, B. canevae, B. sphinx, B. incognitus, and B. dalmatinus) occurring in the same biotope were also investigated. The epiphytal samples consisted of a rich supply of amphipods, bivalves, and algae. Amphipods are the preferred food of the Blennius species examined. These fishes also consume large amounts of copepods and algae, and small quantities of halacarids, bivalves, and ostracods. In addition to serving as a substrate for the main food-animals of the fishes, the algae themselves constitute an important food source. Presumably, for these reasons, the fishes remain close to the area inhabited by the algae on rocky substrates.     

Subgame-perfect cooperative agreements in a dynamic game of climate change

We model climate change as a dynamic game and prove existence of a unique subgame-perfect Nash equilibrium (SPNE) that is also Markov perfect. We interpret this unique SPNE as the business-as-usual (BAU) equilibrium and show that if the countries are not sufficiently symmetric then the familiar trigger strategy equilibria may not be Pareto improvements over the BAU equilibrium and may even lack efficiency properties. We then motivate and introduce a subgame-perfect cooperative agreement as an improvement over the BAU equilibrium in the sense that every country or coalition of countries is better off in every subgame, irrespective of the extent of heterogeneity of the countries. We characterize subgame-perfect cooperative agreements and identify sufficient conditions for their existence. We show that (direct or indirect) transfers between countries to balance the costs and benefits of controlling climate change are a necessity and not a matter of approach.