农地整理的委托代理关系研究

农地整理有利于提高农业生产率,是优化配置土地资源的重要手段,但我国的农地整理效率亟待提高。在农地整理项目实施中,村组干部是地方政府与农民的共同代理人。本文运用共同代理模型从理论上进行推演,认为在委托人利益目标一致的前提下,委托代理双方利益达到次优均衡;而当委托人利益目标发生背离时,共同代理人的行为出现偏差,农地整理项目的效率降低。并通过多元定序变量回归分析,基于湖北省调查数据证明该理论推导。研究结果显示,影响农民评价农地整理工程质量的主要因素是农民身份、项目的规划设计与施工质量、农民的农地整理参与程度及对地方政府的信任程度。研究结果说明,地方政府与农民在农地整理中的利益目标不一致,属于异质的委托人,且两者地位悬殊,地方政府属于强势委托人,而农民则是弱势委托人。作为共同代理人的村组干部在利益抉择中会选择与强势的地方政府合作,并进行利益合谋,最终导致农地整理工程质量低下。研究结论如下:1打破现有农地整理中的共同代理关系,促使地方政府转变职能,强化其代理服务意识,与农民组成利益一致的同质委托人,避免共同代理人与强势委托人的利益共谋,从而提高委托代理效率。2构建完善的农民参与体系,激发农民的参与热情,并将农民的有效参与作为农地整理后评价的重要指标,促进地方政府履行应有职责。3建立健全农地整理项目的社会监督制度,尤其是强化项目区农民的社会监督力量,有利于显化代理人投入和行为,减少道德风险,提高农地整理效率。     

锦标机制理论下企业低碳经济发展激励机制研究

按照企业发展与环境相容的原则,低碳经济是应对全球变暖的最佳经济模式,低碳经济以低能耗、低排放、低污染为基本特征,以应对碳基能源对于气候变暖影响为基本要求,以实现经济社会的可持续发展为基本目的.鉴于当前文献关于企业发展低碳经济的激励机制研究还略显不足,文章借鉴激励理论中的委托代理理论,根据Malcomson模型的研究方法,构建了包括1阶段合约和2阶段合约的企业发展低碳经济的激励机制框架,设立基于相对业绩的"锦标机制"模型并对模型进行系统分析,推导出政府在制定企业发展低碳经济激励政策时的注意事项,即中央政府要加大财政转移支付力度,支持地方发展低碳经济;地方政府要设立专门的低碳经济发展激励基金,并纳入财政预算管理;地方政府在激励企业发展低碳经济时,要有层次、有针对的对企业给予政策支持或财政补贴,形成阶梯式的支持结构,使有限财政资金得到合理配置;地方政府应该以区域内企业实施低碳经济活动的努力水平为评判标准对企业进行激励.     

基于演化博弈的京津冀雾霾治理环境规制政策研究

经济发展与生态环境博弈是当前中国转型发展的必然表现,政府作为环境保护主体行为的博弈性是现阶段中国式分权的必然结果。本文以京津冀及周边地区工业源雾霾治理为研究对象,提出中国式分权中央政府与地方政府委托代理框架下雾霾治理的基本假设,尝试从环境规制执行视角对中央指导、地方响应和企业执行的理想化"合作"博弈提出解决方案。以此构建了中央政府、地方政府与污染企业三方非合作演化博弈模型,借助数值模拟技术对中央政府调控地方政府和污染企业实现理想演化博弈均衡的政策工具进行实证分析。研究发现,中央环保督查行政管制、"奖优罚劣"的专项转移支付、环保履责不力的政治处罚和环境保护税收留地,这些环境规制政策工具能够解决地方政府和污染企业在雾霾治理集体行动中存在的目标不一致性问题。具体来看,中央环保督查强化了地方政府和污染企业在专项转移支付和环境税收收入"奖优罚劣"的规制刚性。三种政策工具的组合使用使得污染企业走向执行减排的演化稳定策略,而地方政府的演化稳定策略是不监管。将环保履责不力的政治损失纳入地方政府效用函数,震慑于中央政府政治处罚,监管成为地方政府的演化稳定策略,而环境保护税收收入全部留存能够在一定程度上摊薄地方政府政治损失。进一步研究表明,对于治理成本的预期是地方政府和污染企业以利益最大化原则作出治理决策的重要依据。因此,为了实现雾霾治理理想演化稳定均衡的帕累托改进,中央政府需要增强中央环境管理集权,避免地方环境规制失灵;扩大中央环保支出范围,建立地方减排补偿机制;强化地方政府环保履责,提高环境税征收标准;支持企业环境技术创新,引导公众第三方监管。     

基于新制度经济学视角的“河长制”评析

我国频发的水危机既是水环境作为居住地、供应站功能而引发的生态破坏问题,也是作为废物库功能而引发的环境污染问题.河长制是地方政府为了重新恢复环境三大功能协调运行而发明的一项有效的实用制度.河长制因其简单易行,很快在全国形成扩散效应.河长制是源于地方政府的制度创新,本文运用新制度经济学分析了河长制的优缺点:优点是职责归属明确,权责清晰;是合理的路径依赖基础上的制度创薪;铁腕治污提高治污效率;创新扩散机制值得提倡.河长制本身存在制度缺陷:无法根除委托-代理问题;缺乏透明的监督机制;容易出现利益合谋;忽视了社会力量;行政问责很难落实.河长制综合考虑了地方权力结构与环境现实,充分利用行政长官手中的权力带动地方政府职能转变,推动了具有中国本土特色环境制度变迁的步伐.但河长制具有应急的过渡性,应在发展中扬长避短,不断完善,应通过它形成全社会参与环境管理的机制,建立可持续发展的环境治理制度.     

水污染治理的微分博弈及策略研究

随着水污染态势的日益加剧,急需改变原有的政府考核机制,树立生态文明建设的新政绩观。在生态文明考核的视角下,考虑到河流中污染量变化影响,本文构建了基于连续时间的政府与企业水污染治理微分博弈模型,并获得了一组反馈纳什均衡解,得出了相对于生态文明环保政绩考核重要性的企业污染物产量下降梯度和政府治污努力上升梯度。分析表明:企业的均衡污染物产量与生态文明环保政绩考核重要性水平负相关;政府的均衡治污努力与生态文明环保政绩考核重要性水平正相关;企业的均衡污染物产量与单位排污费负相关;降低企业的生产成本、减排成本,加大对不法排污企业的处罚力度,均可提高控污效果;制定合理的地方政府生态文明环保政绩奖惩制度,可提高其治污努力程度。此外,本文还运用数值仿真,验证了生态文明环保政绩考核的重要性水平与企业的污染物产量和政府的治污努力的关系。最后提出有效解决河流污染问题的相关对策措施:从考核的分配公平维度、程序公平维度和互动公平维度来构建合理的生态文明环保政绩考核机制,并提高生态文明指标在政府政绩考核中的权重;构建合理的生态文明环保政绩奖惩机制,该机制与地方政府的政治利益、经济利益挂钩,也与官员的个人利益、地方政府利益和部门利益、政府组织的整体利益挂钩;建立企业排污行为奖惩机制,包括对企业超标排放的处罚和对积极实行减排技术创新、清洁生产企业的奖励,制定合理的排污费的收取标准;增强自主创新能力,降低企业的生产成本、减排成本;提高政府环境保护工作能力,降低政府的治污工程成本和管理成本。     

地方政府环境规制及其波动机理研究——基于最优契约设计视角

文章基于最优契约设计视角,剖析了地方政府的最优环境规制及其波动,并讨论了当地居民作为第三方引入的作用。首先,利用委托代理模型构建了以地方政府效益最大化为目标并满足地方政府和企业激励约束条件的最优环境规制契约,该契约表明当保持地方政府高环境规制水平时,地方政府和企业处于同等地位,根据各自的收益分配来决定责任分担的比例,并与二者各自获得的中央政府的奖励比例一致,同时地方政府对企业的生产活动和环境保护活动都不进行经济激励。其次,讨论了重大环境污染事故发生后,地方政府环境规制在中央政府强力介入、环境污染事故影响减弱和影响完全消失三个典型时期的周期循环波动及其机理,结果表明当重大环境污染事故发生时,由于中央政府的强力介入,地方政府选择高水平的环境规制,这时企业生产努力水平和产量都较低,但发生环境污染事故的概率也最低;当环境污染事故影响减弱时,地方政府即使无法获得额外收益,也会通过相对降低环境规制水平来增加企业产量,环境污染事故发生的概率随之增加;当环境污染事故影响完全消失后,地方政府为获得额外收益和完成中央政府的经济考核,会选择低水平环境规制,企业的产量达到最大,环境污染事故发生的概率也最大,直至环境污染事故再次发生,进入下一轮的环境规制波动周期循环。再次,将当地居民作为第三方规制引入地方政府环境规制中,得到包含第三方监管的最优环境规制契约,最优契约的关键就是地方政府要确定在重大环境污染事故发生后对当地居民的收买成本,第三方规制的引入能够在一定程度上烫平地方政府环境规制的波动。最后,从解除地方环境规制部门与地方政府的隶属关系以保持地方政府环境规制部门独立性、推进产权制度改革以保持企业独立性和建立包含当地居民或者社会团体的第三方环境监管组织三个方面提出减小中国地方政府环境规制波动、实现地方政府环境规制最优契约的政策建议。     

区域龙头企业对地方政府环境规制影响研究

当政府基于公共利益对企业实施规制,政府所代表的公共利益与龙头企业的经济利益冲突时,政府的规制行为与规制效率是否会受龙头企业影响?已有的研究较少涉及这一公共管理的重要问题。本研究从环境规制视角出发,基于1999—2013年的中国31个省级层面的面板数据,结合工业企业数据库微观数据,在省级层面实证检验了当存在利益冲突和规制能力约束时,区域环境规制水平是否会受到龙头企业以规模衡量的能力影响;如是,其方向和机制又是什么。本文研究发现:(1)龙头企业规模越大,区域环境规制水平越严格;(2)龙头企业规模对区域环境规制的影响主要通过两种路径实现,一是龙头企业所在行业的区域经济地位,行业的区域经济地位越重要,越容易引来政府的环境规制关注;二是龙头企业在所在行业的经济地位,某企业在行业的比重越高,越容易引来政府的环境规制关注;(3)龙头企业规模与区域环境规制水平间关系是政府有限环境规制能力有效运用的结果,当政府规制能力不足时,政府在规制中会"抓大放小",重点加强对龙头企业的环境规制;随着政府规制能力上升,企业规模与区域环境规制水平的正相关关系不仅回归系数会逐步下降,而且会在统计上不再显著;最终,当政府掌握充分的环境规制能力后,企业的规模可能会在降低区域环境规制水平上发挥一定作用。本文的研究结果证实当政府与企业存在利益博弈时,政府的利益首先得到满足,仅当政府的利益得到满足后,企业才可能利用其实力影响政府规制以获取规制利益最大化。本文的研究一方面消除了"政商勾结"污染环境的忧虑,另一方面也提示要严格限制政府这只"看得见的手"的利益诉求范围。     

“十二五”以来中国应对气候变化的行政手段评估

在中国应对气候变化政策体系中,目标责任制和淘汰落后产能这两项行政手段具有核心地位。充分认识其作用机制,阐述其优势与不足,对于中国碳减排政策的优化设计意义深远。本文遵循气候变化评估报告的原则和方法,以国内外公开发表的相关文献为基础,评估了这两项政策的作用机制、政策有效性以及存在的问题。结果显示:目标责任制和淘汰落后产能这两项行政手段具有高度的有效性。这些行政手段顺应了中国的各项体制机制,确保了中国应对气候变化目标的实现。具体来看,节能降碳目标责任制通过明确地方政府作为节能降碳政策执行主体的责任,改变了原有的官员激励体系,强化了政府对既有政策的执行,还促进了地方政府和企业各项节能降碳制度的形成。淘汰落后产能以目标责任考核为基础,结合各种激励政策,在节能降碳、化解产能过剩等方面发挥了巨大效应。尽管行政手段在温室气体减排中的作用非常有效,但是这种自上而下的压力传递机制难以真正内化为地方政府和企业开展节能降碳工作的自发性力量。此外,由于节能降碳目标的层层分解,县级及以下政府承担了与其行政管理权限并不匹配的责任。在压力体制下,过剩产能的市场退出障碍和地方政府、企业产能扩张的冲动依然存在。未来应结合行政和市场手段的优缺点,综合施策,促进温室气体减排长效机制的形成。     

制度模糊性下中国城镇化进程中的社会冲突

我国快速城镇化进程中社会冲突频发并呈现出迅速累积和扩散的趋势。制度模糊性为政府和强势集团对城镇化利益进行策略性分配提供了行为空间,成为城镇化利益分配冲突的制度根源。在城镇化进程中,作为主导力量的地方政府具有强烈的获利机会进行城镇化运动的动机,成为积极谋取城镇化净收益的"第一行动集团"。由于委托代理机制的失灵,中央政府对城镇化发展的目标定位、利益诉求都会落空。在信息高度不对称的情况下,地方政府、资本投资者等利益主体有着采取策略性行为的动机和能力。由于他们在城镇化运动中存在着狭隘的共容利益,他们更容易在城镇化推进过程中形成非正式的利益联盟,来谋取城镇化收益而转嫁成本。因此,社会冲突的有效治理需要加速制度变迁以促进制度系统与城镇化的有效调适,明晰制度规则以压缩强势集团策略性分配城镇化利益的行为空间,减少地方政府对城镇化的过度干预以促进城乡社会的自然融合,建立社会安全阀制度实现社会冲突的动态治理。     

财政竞争、引资竞争与土地约束性指标管控政策执行偏差

约束性指标管控是我国土地管理领域的一项重要公共政策,但其实际执行过程却偏离原定政策目标。传统"央地纵向委托代理困境"视角的解释认为,地方政府追求土地财政和土地引资的动机是导致产生政策执行偏差的根源,但其忽略了地方政府行为所具有的空间关联性而存在解释力不足的缺陷。为此,本文立足于地方政府横向竞争的视角,分析了地方政府间的财政竞争、引资竞争对土地约束性指标管控政策执行的影响;在此基础上,通过2010—2014年间的省级面板数据,构建空间杜宾模型对相应理论假说进行了检验。研究发现:(1)地方政府的土地财政、土地引资行为会加剧本地区的政策执行偏差程度。(2)地方政府间存在"相互模仿"的土地财政和土地引资竞争策略,这使其土地财政和土地引资行为会产生正向的空间溢出,即在加剧本地区政策执行偏差程度的同时,还会同步加剧相邻地区的政策执行偏差程度。(3)土地引资的直接效应和间接效应无论在范围上还是强度上都要强于土地财政,这表明地方政府间的土地引资竞争是导致政策执行偏差的更重要因素。本研究的政策启示在于,为了促进土地约束性指标管控政策的良好执行,不仅要通过财税体制改革来弱化地方政府间的土地财政竞争,更要通过政府绩效考核改革来遏制它们之间的土地引资竞争。     

Ethnosciences––A step towards the integration of scientific and indigenous forms of knowledge in the management of natural resources for the future

Integration of indigenous knowledge and ethnoscientific approaches into contemporary frameworks for conservation and sustainable management of natural resources will become increasingly important in policies on an international and national level, both in countries that are industrialised and those that have a developing status. We set the scene on how this can be done by exploring the key conditions and dimensions of a dialogue between ȁ8ontologiesȁ9 and the roles, which ethnosciences could play in this process. First, the roles of ethnosciences in the context of sustainable development were analysed, placing emphasis on the implications arising when western sciences aspire to relate to indigenous forms of␣knowledge. Secondly, the contributions of ethnosciences to such an ȁ8inter- ontological dialogueȁ9 were explored, based on an ethnoecological study of the encounter of sciences and indigenous knowledge in the Andes of Bolivia, and reviewed experiences from mangrove systems in Kenya, India and Sri Lanka, and from case-studies in other ecosystems world-wide, incl. Australia, Burkina Faso, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Indonesia, Nepal, Niger, Philippines, Senegal, South-Africa and Tanzania.     

Paradoxical ozone associations could be due to methyl nitrite from combustion of methyl ethers or esters in engine fuels

We review studies of the effects of low ambient ozone concentrations on morbidity that found a negative coefficient for ozone concentration. We call this a Paradoxical Ozone Association (POA). All studies were in regions with methyl ether in gasoline. All but one study carefully controlled for the effects of other criterion pollutants, so the phenomenon cannot be attributed to them. One was in southern California in mid-summer when ozone levels are highest. Because ozone is created by sunlight, the most plausible explanation for a POA would be an ambient pollutant that is rapidly destroyed by sunlight, such as methyl nitrite (MN). A previously published model of engine exhaust chemistry suggested methyl ether in the fuel will create MN in the exhaust. MN is known to be highly toxic, and closely related alkyl nitrites are known to induce respiratory sensitivity in humans. Support for the interpretation comes from many studies, including three linking asthma symptoms to methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) and the observation that a POA has not been seen in regions without ether in gasoline. We also note that studies in southern California show a historical trend from more significant to less significant ozone-health associations. The timing of those changes is consistent with the known timing of the introduction of gasoline oxygenated with MTBE in that region.     

Distributions of personal VOC exposures: a population-based analysis

Information regarding the distribution of volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations and exposures is scarce, and there have been few, if any, studies using population-based samples from which representative estimates can be derived. This study characterizes distributions of personal exposures to ten different VOCs in the U.S. measured in the 1999-2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Personal VOC exposures were collected for 669 individuals over 2-3 days, and measurements were weighted to derive national-level statistics. Four common exposure sources were identified using factor analyses: gasoline vapor and vehicle exhaust, methyl tert-butyl ether (MBTE) as a gasoline additive, tap water disinfection products, and household cleaning products. Benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, xylenes chloroform, and tetrachloroethene were fit to log-normal distributions with reasonably good agreement to observations. 1,4-Dichlorobenzene and trichloroethene were fit to Pareto distributions, and MTBE to Weibull distribution, but agreement was poor. However, distributions that attempt to match all of the VOC exposure data can lead to incorrect conclusions regarding the level and frequency of the higher exposures. Maximum Gumbel distributions gave generally good fits to extrema, however, they could not fully represent the highest exposures of the NHANES measurements. The analysis suggests that complete models for the distribution of VOC exposures require an approach that combines standard and extreme value distributions, and that carefully identifies outliers. This is the first study to provide national-level and representative statistics regarding the VOC exposures, and its results have important implications for risk assessment and probabilistic analyses.     

Long-term increase in climatic dryness in the East-Mediterranean as evidenced for the island of Samos

The Eastern Mediterranean region is among the regions which were predicted to become drier under IPCC climate scenarios. Here, we document a gradual reduction of rainfall and tree growth and the loss of rural springs during the last decades of the twentieth century. Years with severe drought are associated with very low tree growth (dendrochronology) and dry falling of springs as evidenced by interviews with local stakeholders. The paper discusses the consequences of accelerating drought on natural vegetation and agriculture and points at the interaction with fire dynamics and economy, both likely to enhance the drought effect.     

Comparative analysis of the effect of predator odor on morphological and physiological parameters of adult male Campbell hamsters (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phodopus campbelli</Emphasis>) and dwarf hamsters (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phodopus sungorus</Emphasis>)

The effect of long-term exposure to natural excretions of the European polecat on the morphological parameters and hormonal status of adult male Campbell hamsters (Phodopus campbelli) and dwarf hamsters (Ph. sungorus) was studied. Exposure to volatile components of natural excreta of a potential predator did not have any significant effect on hamsters. The combined influence of volatile and nonvolatile components of the polecat’s excretions caused physiological stress in Ph. campbelli, while in Ph. sungorus, on the contrary, an increase in thymus weight and the plasma testosterone level was recorded.     

How Do Groups Solve Local Commons Dilemmas? Lessons from Experimental Economics in the Field

The use of experimental settings to observe human behaviour in a controlled environment of incentives, rules and institutions, has been widely used by the behavioural sciences for sometime now, particularly by psychology and economics. In most cases the subjects are college students recruited for one to two hour decision making exercises in which, depending on their choices, they earn cash averaging US$ 20. In such exercises players face a set of feasible actions, rules and incentives (payoffs) involving different forms of social exchange with other people, and that in most cases involve some kind of externalities with incomplete contracts, such as in the case of common-pool resources situations. Depending on the ecological and institutional settings, the resource users face a set of feasible levels of extraction, a set of rules regarding the control or monitoring of individual use, and sometimes ways of imposing material or non-material costs or rewards to those breaking or following the rules. We brought the experimental lab to the field and invited about two hundred users of natural resources in three Colombian rural villages to participate in such decision making exercises and through these and other research instruments we learned about the ways they solve - or fail to - tragedies of the commons with different social institutions. Further, bringing the lab to the field allowed us to explore some of the limitations of existing models about human behaviour and its consequences for designing policies for conserving ecosystems and improving social welfare.     

Quantifying the transfer of radionuclides to food products from domestic farm animals

Databases have been compiled to derive parameter values relevant to the transfer of radionuclides from feedstuffs to domestic animal products to provide a revision to the IAEA Handbook on transfer parameters TRS 364. Significant new data inputs have been incorporated into the databases from an extensive review of Russian language information and inclusion of data published since the early 1990s. Fractional gastrointestinal absorption in adult ruminants presented in the revised handbook are generally similar to those recommended for adult humans by the ICRP. Transfer coefficient values are presented in the handbook for a range of radionuclides to farm animal products. For most animal products, transfer coefficient values for elements additional to those in TRS 364 are provided although many data gaps remain. Transfer coefficients generally vary between species with larger species having lower values than smaller species. It has been suggested that the difference is partly due to the inclusion of dietary dry matter intake in the estimation of transfer coefficient and that whilst dietary intake increases with size nutrient concentrations do not. An alternative approach to quantifying transfer by using concentration ratios (CR), which do not consider dietary intake, has been evaluated. CR values compiled for the handbook vary considerably less between species than transfer coefficient values. The advantage of the CR approach is that values derived for one species could be applied to species for which there are no data. However, transfer coefficients will continue to be used as few studies currently report CR values or give data from which they can be estimated.     

A Dynamic model of Cs accumulation by fish of different age classes

A dynamic model of radionuclide accumulation in fish is developed. In the model, the fish population is represented by a set of discrete age classes. Each age class is characterized by a specific growth rate, diet and activity of metabolic processes. The model describes all known types of size effect in the contamination of fish with radiocaesium. The detailed dynamics of ¹³⁷Cs accumulation by fish are demonstrated using the results of the model's application to ichtiofauna in a water body which has a high level of contamination with radiocaesium — namely, the cooling pond of the Chernobyl NPP.     

Greenwashed sports and environmental activism: Formula 1 and FIFA†

ABSTRACT

Formula 1 motor sport and the Men's World Cup of association football, two major sporting events on our calendars, are indirectly and directly responsible for environmental despoliation. They serve as advertisements for heavy industry, are designed for elite as much as mass consumption, and provide sponsors with dubious social licenses to operate. This occurs through the very mechanisms of the events themselves (engines in Formula 1, tourism in the World Cup) as well as their promotional externalities. I look at greenwashing claims made about these two sporting events and examine counter-discourses, then investigate economic and ecological citizenship. I suggest that a progressive agenda can be forwarded if Greenpeace, which runs campaigns related to these sports, works with its fellow elites, in the case of Formula 1, and with fans in the case of football. Doing so may be more effective than business-as-usual direct action.     

江苏海洋开发的资源环境条件评述

江苏海洋的区位优越，海域广阔，环境条件总体有利，海洋资源种类多，数量大，具有综合开发功能，而且资源和环境的区域组合良好，有利于海洋产业的集约经营和协调发展，但也存在不少限制因素，如深水区离岸较远，海底矿产勘探程度低，自然灾害较多等。应根据实际情况确定本省海洋的开发战略。