Developing Alternative Forest Management Planning Strategies Incorporating Timber, Water and Carbon Values: An Examination of their Interactions

Currently, the integration of carbon and water values of forest ecosystems into forest management planning models has become increasingly important in sustainable forest management. This study focuses on developing a multiple-use forest management planning model to examine the interactions of timber and water production as well as net carbon sequestration in a forest ecosystem. Each forest value is functionally linked to stand structure and quantified economically. A number of forest management planning strategies varying in the amount of water, carbon, and timber targets and flows as constraints are developed and implemented in a linear programming (LP) environment. The outputs of each strategy are evaluated with a number of performance indicators such as standing timber volume, ending forest inventory, area harvested, and net present value (NPV) of water, timber, and carbon over time. Results showed that the cycling time of forest stands for renewal has important implications for timber, water, and carbon values. The management strategies indicated that net carbon sequestration can be attained at a significant cost in terms of foregone timber harvest and financial returns. The standing timber volumes and ending forest inventories were among the most important factors determining whether the forest constitutes a net carbon sink or source. Finally, the interactions among the forest values were generally found to be complementary, yet sometimes contradictory (i.e., negatively affecting each other), depending on the assumed relationship between forest values and stand structure.     

Spatiotemporal changes of landscape pattern in response to deforestation in Northeastern Turkey: a case study in Rize

Recognition and understanding of landscape dynamics as a historical legacy of disturbances are necessary for sustainable management of forest ecosystems. This study analyzes spatial and temporal changes in land use and forest cover patterns in a typical mountain forest area in Rize Forest Enterprise of the Northeastern part of Turkey. The area is investigated by evaluated the temporal changes of spatial structure of forest conditions through spatial analysis of forest cover type maps from 1984 and 2007 using GIS and FRAGSTATS. The quantative evidences presented here showed that there were drastic changes in the temporal and spatial dynamics of land use/forest cover. As an overall change between 1984 and 2007, there was a net decrease of 2.30% in total forested areas. On one hand, productive forest areas decreased 12,506 ha, on the other hand, degraded forest areas increased 14,805 ha. In examining the changes of crown closure and development stages of forest ecosystem during the study period, the forest stand area with medium crown closures increased. Regenerated area increased while the other development stages were left to grow to mature development stages in the period. These results regarding to crown closure and development stage showed that forest quality has increased but total forest areas decreased. This is partially due to out-migration of rural population in Rize and Cayeli towns. In terms of spatial configuration, analysis of the metrics revealed that landscape structure in Study area had changed substantially over the 23-year study period, resulting in fragmentation of the landscape as indicated by the large patch numbers and the smaller mean patch sizes due to heavy timber subtraction, illegal cutting, and uncontrolled stand treatments.     

Spatial and temporal dynamics of land use pattern in Eastern Turkey: a case study in Gümüşhane

Recognition and understanding of landscape dynamics as a historical legacy of disturbances are necessary for sustainable management of forest ecosystems. This study analyzed spatial and temporal changes in land use and land cover patterns in a typical mountain watershed in the Gumushane district along the Northeastern part of Turkey. The area is investigated by comparing LANDSAT images from 1987 to 2000 and evaluated the temporal changes of spatial structure of forest conditions through spatial analysis of forest cover type maps from 1971 and 1987 using GIS and FRAGSTATS™. The results show a general decreasing trend in area of natural land cover types including broadleaf and conifer forests as well as coppice between 1971 and 1987 (0.54%, respectively). In contrast, between 1987 and 2000 this natural land cover types show increasing trend (1.6%). In parallel with forest dynamics, the area of managed land including lowland and upland agricultural areas, rangelands and grasslands increased during the first period and decreased during second period. In terms of spatial configuration, Gümüşhane forests aren’t generally fragmented by intensive forest utilization in the latter periods. This is partially due to out-migration of rural population in Gümüşhane. Nevertheless, land use pattern significantly changed over time depending on a few factors such as unregulated management actions, social pressure and demographic movements. The study revealed that demographic movements have a major effect on landscape dynamics.     

Evaluating forest management practices using a GIS-based cellular automata modeling approach with multispectral imagery

The objective of this study was to develop an integrated geographic information system (GIS) cellular automata (CA) model for simulating insect-induced tree mortality patterns in order to evaluate the influence of different forest management activities to control insect outbreaks. High-resolution multispectral images were used to determine susceptibility of trees to attack, whereas the GIS-based CA model simulated the effectiveness of clear-cuts and thinning practices for reducing insect-induced tree mortality. The results indicate that thinning susceptible forests should be more effective than clear-cutting for reducing tree loss to insect outbreaks. This study demonstrates the benefits of an integrated approach for understanding and evaluating forest management activities and expresses the need for spatial analysis and modeling for improving forest management practices.     

Temporal Changes in Forest Landscape Patterns in Artvin Forest Planning Unit, Turkey

Understanding the historical dynamics, composition, and environmental disturbances of forest landscapes provides a context for monitoring changes, describing trends, and establishing reference conditions. This study analyses the temporal changes in forest ecosystem structure in Artvin Forest Planning Unit (AFPU), Turkey, during 1972–2002 period based on digitized forest stand type maps using geographic information system (GIS) and interpretation of satellite data. The results showed that there was a net decrease of 450 ha in total forested areas between 1972 and 2002. Forest ecosystem structure changed over time depending on a few factors such as demographic movements, insect outbreaks, dam and road construction, unregulated management actions, and social pressure. In conclusion, temporal changes and the factors affecting these changes should be determined for sustainable management of natural resources.     

Characterizing the forest fragmentation of Canada’s national parks

Characterizing the amount and configuration of forests can provide insights into habitat quality, biodiversity, and land use. The establishment of protected areas can be a mechanism for maintaining large, contiguous areas of forests, and the loss and fragmentation of forest habitat is a potential threat to Canada’s national park system. Using the Earth Observation for Sustainable Development of Forests (EOSD) land cover product (EOSD LC 2000), we characterize the circa 2000 forest patterns in 26 of Canada’s national parks and compare these to forest patterns in the ecological units surrounding these parks, referred to as the greater park ecosystem (GPE). Five landscape pattern metrics were analyzed: number of forest patches, mean forest patch size (hectare), standard deviation of forest patch size (hectare), mean forest patch perimeter-to-area ratio (meters per hectare), and edge density of forest patches (meters per hectare). An assumption is often made that forests within park boundaries are less fragmented than the surrounding GPE, as indicated by fewer forest patches, a larger mean forest patch size, less variability in forest patch size, a lower perimeter-to-area ratio, and lower forest edge density. Of the 26 national parks we analyzed, 58% had significantly fewer patches, 46% had a significantly larger mean forest patch size (23% were not significantly different), and 46% had a significantly smaller standard deviation of forest patch size (31% were not significantly different), relative to their GPEs. For forest patch perimeter-to-area ratio and forest edge density, equal proportions of parks had values that were significantly larger or smaller than their respective GPEs and no clear trend emerged. In summary, all the national parks we analyzed, with the exception of the Georgian Bay Islands, were found to be significantly different from their corresponding GPE for at least one of the five metrics assessed, and 50% of the 26 parks were significantly different from their respective GPEs for all of the metrics assessed. The EOSD LC 2000 provides a heretofore unavailable dataset for characterizing broad trends in forest fragmentation in Canada’s national parks and in their surrounding GPEs. The interpretation of forest fragmentation metrics must be guided by the underlying land cover context, as many forested ecosystems in Canada are naturally fragmented due to wetlands and topography. Furthermore, interpretation must also consider the management context, as some parks are designed to preserve fragmented habitats. An analysis of forest pattern such as that described herein provides a baseline, from which changes in fragmentation patterns over time could be monitored, enabled by earth observation data.     

Quantifying the Effects of Forest Management Strategies on the Production of Forest Values: Timber,Carbon, Oxygen,Water, and Soil

Forest management practices alter forest structure quantified with ecosystem characteristics and values. In this paper, we utilized a forest management simulation model to assess the effects of three forest management strategies focusing on timber production, carbon sequestration, oxygen production, soil erosion, and water production of a forest management unit in Turkey. A forest simulation model “ETÇAPSimülasyon” was developed and used to project forest ecosystem development over 100 years under three forest management policies of timber-oriented forest management (TFM), multipurpose forest management (MFM), and no intervention (NI). The results showed that TFM strategy produced more timber and its net present value than MFM and NI strategies did. The amount of carbon sequestration and oxygen production potential was also found to be the highest with TFM strategy than with the MFM and NI strategies. Compared with the other strategies, however, NI strategy produced the highest amount of water production and soil losses over the planning horizon. The effects of a forest management strategy depend mainly on the initial forest structure, the rate of development and the level of forest management interventions. Therefore, forest dynamics under various management strategies should be explained before the final management decision. Understanding long-term effects of any management strategies on forest structure will provide the basis for better reaching the management objectives.     

Monitoring forest structure at landscape level: a case study of Scots pine forest in NE Turkey

This study aims to investigate the change in spatial-temporal configuration of secondary forest succession and generate measurements for monitoring the changes in structural plant diversity in Yaln?zçam Scots pine forest in NE Turkey from 1972 to 2005. The successional stages were mapped using the combination of Geographic Information System (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), aerial photos and high resolution satellite images (IKONOS). Forest structure and its relationship with structural plant diversity along with its changes over time were characterized using FRAGSTATS. In terms of spatial configuration of seral stages, the total number of fragments increased from 572 to 735, and mean size of patch (MPS) decreased from 154.97 ha to 120.60 ha over 33 years. The situation resulted in forestation serving appropriate conditions for plant diversity in the area. As an overall change in study area, there was a net increase of 1823.3 ha forest during the period with an average annual forestation rate of 55.25 ha year^?1(0.4% per year). In conclusion, the study revealed that stand type maps of forest management plans in Turkey provide a great chance to monitor the changes in structural plant diversity over time. The study further contributes to the development of a framework for effective integration of biodiversity conservation into Multiple Use Forest Management (MUFM) plans using the successional stages as a critical mechanism.     

Assessing implications of land use and land cover changes in forest ecosystems of NE Turkey

Monitoring land use and land cover change (LUCC) and understanding forest cover dynamics is extremely important in sustainable development and management of forest ecosystems. This study analyzed the spatial and temporal pattern of LUCC in the Yaln?zçam and U?urlu forest planning units which are located in the northeast corner of Turkey. The investigation also evaluates the temporal changes of the spatial structure of forest conditions through the spatial analysis of forest-cover type maps from 1972 and 2005 using geographical information systems and FRAGSTATS^TM. As an overall change between 1972 and 2005, there was a net increase of 1,823 ha in forested areas, and cumulative forest improvement accounted for 2.06 %. In terms of spatial configuration, the landscape structure in the study area changed substantially over the 33-year study period, resulting in fragmentation of the landscape as indicated by large patch numbers and smaller mean patch sizes, owing to heavy grazing, illegal cutting, and uncontrolled stand treatments.     

A gis-based assessment on the vulnerability and future extent of the tropical forests of the congo basin

This paper examines the vulnerability of the Congo Basin's forests through a GIS platform, taking into consideration the variables of population growth, road density, logging concession, and forest fragmentation. The assessment indicates that the forests will continue to shrink towards the interior over the next 50 years. Current contiguous forests will fragment into three large blocks, including one on the west side of the Congo River and two in the Democratic Republic of Congo, while a large number of small forest patches will retain in the periphery of the large blocks. The study shows that integrated GIS assessment of the driving forces of tropical deforestation can shed light on the future forest distribution and provide a tool to address the broader implications of social and economic development for tropical deforestation.     

Regional impact analysis of climate change on natural and managed forests in the Federal State of Brandenburg, Germany

A methodology for regional application of forest simulation models has been developed as part of an assessment of possible climate change impacts in the Federal state of Brandenburg (Germany). Here we report on the application of a forest gap model to analyse the impacts of climate change on species composition and productivity of natural and managed forests in Brandenburg using a statistical method for the development of climate scenarios. The forest model was linked to a GIS that includes soil and groundwater table maps, as well as gridded climate data with a resolution of 10 × 10 km and simulated a steady-state species composition which was classified into forest types based on the biomass distribution between species. Different climate scenarios were used to assess the sensitivity of species composition to climate change. The simulated forest distribution patterns for current climate were compared with a map of Potential Natural Vegetation (PNV) of Brandenburg.In order to analyse the possible consequences of climate change on forest management, we used forest inventory data to initialize the model with representative forest stands. Simulation experiments with two different management strategies indicated how forest management could respond to the projected impacts of climate change. The combination of regional analysis of natural forest dynamics under climate change with simulation experiments for managed forests outlines possible trends for the forest resources. The implications of the results are discussed, emphasizing the regional differences in environmental risks and the adaptation potentials of forestry in Brandenburg.     

The 2007 crisis and Greek wildfires: a multivariate analysis of suppression times

Shifts in government priorities in response to the 2007 global recession have affected wildfire management and natural disaster funding arrangements, leading to a reduced effectiveness of fire suppression actions and increasing fire vulnerability. Our study investigates the role of local socioeconomic contexts on fire suppression effectiveness under economic expansion and recession in a Mediterranean region (Attica, Greece) strongly affected by 2007 crisis and displaying a persistently high density of peri-urban wildfires. Basic characteristics of wildfires (spatial distribution, intensity, and land use preferences) were investigated in the study area over two consecutive 8-year time intervals characterized by economic expansion (2000–2007) and recession (2008–2015). An integrated approach based on multivariate statistics and artificial neural networks was implemented to evaluate latent relationships between fire suppression time, wildfire characteristics, and socioeconomic dynamics. Controlling for wildfires’ characteristics over the two time intervals, fire time length increased under crisis—mainly for small and medium-sized fires—possibly as an indirect response to reduced effectiveness of forest land management. Local contexts and political decisions influenced by economic downturns are relevant factors shaping wildfires’ severity in the Mediterranean region. With recession, local contexts vulnerable to wildfires require more effective fire prevention measures, sustainable forest management, and regional planning.     

Fate of coliforms and pathogenic parasite in four full-scale sewage treatment systems in India

Global positioning systems (GPS) are increasingly being used for habitat mapping because they provide spatially referenced data that can be used to characterize habitat structure across the landscape and document habitat change over time. We evaluated the accuracy of using a GPS for determining the size and location of habitat patches in a riverine environment. We simulated error attributable to a mapping-grade GPS receiver capable of achieving sub-meter accuracy onto discrete macrophyte bed and wood habitat patches (2 to 177 m(2)) that were digitized from an aerial photograph of the Laramie River, Wyoming, USA in a way that emulated field mapping. Patches with simulated error were compared to the original digitized patches. The accuracy in measuring habitat patches was affected most by patch size and less by patch shape and complexity. Perimeter length was consistently overestimated but was less biased for large, elongate patches with complex shapes. Patch area was slightly overestimated for small patches but was unbiased for large patches. Precision of area estimates was highest for large (>100 m(2)), elongate patches. Percent spatial overlap, a measure of the spatial accuracy of patch location, was low and variable for the smallest patches (2 to 5 m(2)). Mean percent spatial overlap was not related to patch shape but the precision of overlap was lower for small, elongate, and complex patches. Mapping habitat patches with a mapping-grade GPS can yield useful data, but research objectives will determine the acceptable amount of error and the smallest habitats that can be reliably measured.     

Accounting for forest carbon pool dynamics in product carbon footprints: Challenges and opportunities

Modification and loss of forests due to natural and anthropogenic disturbance contribute an estimated 20% of annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide. Although forest carbon pool modeling rarely suggests a ‘carbon neutral’ flux profile, the life cycle assessment community and associated product carbon footprint protocols have struggled to account for the GHG emissions associated with forestry, specifically, and land use generally. Principally, this is due to underdeveloped linkages between life cycle inventory (LCI) modeling for wood and forest carbon modeling for a full range of forest types and harvest practices, as well as a lack of transparency in globalized forest supply chains. In this paper, through a comparative study of U.S. and Chinese coated freesheet paper, we develop the initial foundations for a methodology that rescales IPCC methods from the national to the product level, with reference to the approaches in three international product carbon footprint protocols. Due to differences in geographic origin of the wood fiber, the results for two scenarios are highly divergent. This suggests that both wood LCI models and the protocols need further development to capture the range of spatial and temporal dimensions for supply chains (and the associated land use change and modification) for specific product systems. The paper concludes by outlining opportunities to measure and reduce uncertainty in accounting for net emissions of biogenic carbon from forestland, where timber is harvested for consumer products.     

Hurricane Katrina-induced forest damage in relation to ecological factors at landscape scale

Forest stand stability to strong winds such as hurricanes has been found to be associated with a number of forest, soil and topography factors. In this study, through applying geographic information system (GIS) and logit regression, we assessed effects of forest characteristics and site conditions on pattern, severity and probability of Hurricane Katrina disturbance to forests in the Lower Pearl River Valley, USA. The factors included forest type, forest coverage, stand density, soil great group, elevation, slope, aspect, and stream buffer zone. Results showed that Hurricane Katrina damaged 60% of the total forested land in the region. The distribution and intensity of the hurricane disturbance varied across the landscape, with the bottomland hardwood forests on river floodplains most severely affected. All these factors had a variety of effects on vulnerability of the forests to the hurricane disturbance and thereby spatial patterns of the disturbance. Soil groups and stand factors including forest types, forest coverage and stand density contributed to 85% of accuracy in modeling the probability of the hurricane disturbance to forests in this region. Besides assessment of Katrina's damage, this study elucidates the great usefulness of remote sensing and GIS techniques combined with statistics modeling in assessment of large-scale risks of hurricane damage to coastal forests.     

Structural characteristics of post-wildfire and clearcut landscapes

A continuing discussion in the field of ecology and forest management concerns the implications of clearcutting as a functional replacement for wildfire in disturbance-driven ecosystems. At the landscape level, spatial pattern has been shown to influence many ecologically important processes. Satellite imagery allows the evaluation of structural patterns created by alternative forest management activities at broad scales. In Northwestern Ontario, both clearcutting and wildfire have occurred over large contiguous areas. Spatial characteristics including composition, patch size, patch shape, and interspersion were calculated from classified Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data at two thematic scales and used to compare post-wildfire and clearcut landscapes. Patches in the clearcut landscape were found to be larger in size, and had a more irregular shape than those in the wildfire landscape. Differences in landscape structure were much more pronounced at broad scales than at fine thematic scales.     

Using Spatial Pattern to Quantify Relationship Between Samples, Surroundings, and Populations

The need for accurate carbon budgeting, climate change modelling, and sustainable resource management has lead to an increase in the number of large area forest monitoring programs. Large area forest monitoring programs often utilize field and remotely sensed data sources. Sampling, via field or photo plots, enables the collection of data with the desired level of categorical detail in a timely and efficient manner. When sampling, the aim is to collect representative detailed data enabling the statistical reporting upon the characteristics of larger areas. As a consequence, approaches for investigating how well sample data represent larger areas (i.e., the sample neighbourhood and the population) are desired. Presented in this communication is a quantitative approach for assessing the nature of sampled areas in relation to surrounding areas and the overall population of interest. Classified Landsat data is converted to forest/non-forest categories to provide a consistent and uniform data set over a 130,000 km² study region in central British Columbia, Canada. From this larger study area 322 2 × 2 km photo plots on a 20 × 20 km systematic grid are populated with composition and configuration information for comparison to non-sampled areas. Results indicate that typically, within the study area, the spatial pattern of forest within a photo plot is representative of the forest patterns found within primary and secondary neighbourhoods and over the entire population of the study. These methods have implications for understanding the nature of data used in monitoring programs worldwide. The ability to audit photo and field plot information promotes an increased understanding of the results developed from sampling and provides tools identifying locations of possible bias.     

Development of Ecological Land Classification and mapping in support of forest management in northern Newfoundland,Canada

For the sustainable development of forest land, as recently prescribed by the Canadian Forest Strategy, a land classification project in northern Newfoundland was initiated to support the local forest management activities. The method adopted here is a modification of the Canadian Committee for Ecological Land Classification's (CCELC) system, and it applies various levels of mapping to uniform areas based on geomorphology, soils, vegetation, climate, water, and fauna.In this study, all CCELC levels were mapped; resulting maps were digitized and imported into a Geographic Informations System (GIS). The GIS data base contained the following maps: 1) digital terrain model, 2) bedrock geology, 3) surficial geology, 4) forest inventory, and 5) various levels of the ecological land classification, including Vegetation Types at the lowest level. In addition to the mapping, mensurational data were analyzed to provide stand and stock tables for each of the forest types, including growth curves that could be entered into specific forest growth modelling systems to predict wood supply scenarios based upon different management interventions.     

Assessment of Flood Losses with Household Responses: Agent-Based Simulation in an Urban Catchment Area

Densely populated coastal urban areas are often exposed to multiple hazards, in particular floods and storms. Flood defenses and other engineering measures contribute to the mitigation of flood hazards, but a holistic approach to flood risk management should consider other interventions from the human side, including warning information, adaptive behavior, people/property evacuation, and the multilateral relief in local communities. There are few simulation approaches to consider these factors, and these typically focus on collective human actions. This paper presents an agent-based model that simulates flood response preferences and actions taken within individual households to reduce flood losses. The model implements a human response framework in which agents assess different flood scenarios according to warning information and decide whether and how much they invest in response measures to reduce potential inundation damages. A case study has been carried out in the Ng Tung River basin, an urbanized watershed in northern Hong Kong. Adopting a digital elevation model (DEM) as the modeling environment and a building map of household locations in the case area, the model considers the characteristics of households and the flood response behavior of their occupants. We found that property value, warning information, and storm conditions all influence household losses, with downstream and high density areas being particularly vulnerable. Results further indicate (i) that a flood warning system, which provides timely, accurate, and broad coverage rainstorm warning, can reduce flood losses by 30–40%; and (ii) to reduce losses, it is more effective and cheaper to invest early in response measures than late actions. This dynamic agent-based modeling approach is an innovative attempt to quantify and model the role of human responses in flood loss assessments. The model is demonstrated being useful for analyzing household scale flood losses and responses and it has the potential to contribute to flood emergency planning resource allocation in pluvial flood incidents.     

Classification and mapping forest sites using geographic information system (GIS): a case study in Artvin Province

The productivity of forest sites has been indirectly determined with solo wood production objective in forest management. Forest site productivity should, however, be determined directly in order to implement ecosystem based multipurpose forest management philosophy. This article tackles the problem in distinguishing and mapping forest sites using both direct method and indirect method in Genya Mountain located in central of Artvin State Forest Enterprise. About 112 sample plots were designed and distributed over the area. In each sample plot, soil samples were collected and the classical timber inventory measurements were taken. According to direct method, Soil Moisture Regime (SMR) method is preferred due to a water deficiency in the study area. Water holding capacity was used as an essential criterion for the classification of the forest site. Forest site classifications were assigned regarding the physiographic factors such as landform, aspect, and slope. Five different forest sites classes; dry, moderate fresh, fresh, humid and hygric were determined. According to direct method, the guiding curve was used to generate anamorphic site index (SI) equations and three site index classes; good (SI=I–II), medium (SI=III) and low (SI=IV–V) were determined. Some important differences between the methods were realized. The forest sites determined with site index estimation method indicate that site index I and II is 505.99 ha, III 1095.79 ha and IV and V 992.95 ha, whereas forest sites determined with direct method related to dry site of 937.58 ha, moderate fresh site of 931.90 ha, fresh site of 1,797.71 ha, humid site of 80.48 ha and hygric site of 356.55 ha. The forest site maps of both methods were created using GIS functions. The forest sites of open and degraded areas should be determined according to direct method.