Graphical strategies for design of evaporation crystallization networks for environmental wastewater applications

This paper introduces graphical strategies for the design of an evaporation/crystallization network for ternary wastewater environmental applications. Sources, sinks and other streams are located on a ternary composition diagram. While a source is any wastewater stream that has the potential to be recycled, a sink is any unit in the process that can accept sources. The proposed methodology is extremely simple to understand and implement, as it only requires basic solid-liquid phase equilibria data and uses lever arm principles to generate alternative process designs. Geometric constructions are carried out on the ternary composition diagram and the respective lever arms are used to determine intermediate flow rates in the evaporation/crystallization network. The relative locations and flow rates of the sources and sinks under consideration, as well as the unique shape of the solid-liquid equilibrium, drive the design of the separation (via evaporation/crystallization) network. Some generic structures are proposed for a typical evaporation and crystallization network. Once the general problem statement has been defined, special cases consisting of a single source-single sink, single source-two sinks and two sources-single sink are described. These special cases are representative of commonly occurring industrial wastewater design problems. Several graphical insights are listed that allow one to represent evaporation and crystallization operations on a ternary triangular composition diagram and avoid mathematical complexity. The possibility of bypassing a part of the initial feed streams is also considered. Certain feasible composition regions are identified on the ternary composition diagram for cases dealing with multiple sources and sinks. The methodology is useful in pre-screening and eliminating certain sources/sinks and is readily applicable to cases with lower number of sources and sinks. A case study involving the ammonium nitrate manufacturing process is included to demonstrate the broad applicability and value of the proposed approach.     

碳中和战略下煤矿区生态碳汇体系构建及功能提升展望

煤炭资源开发引起矿区生态碳汇总量的降低,在碳中和战略下探索煤矿区生态碳汇提升技术和模式具有重大意义.通过研究构建了包括管理模式与技术方法两个层次,土壤碳汇、植被碳汇和湿地碳汇这3个主要类别,矿区生态碳汇规划、碳汇监测调查、碳汇功能提升和碳汇损失防控等多项技术内容的煤矿区生态碳汇体系框架,明确了煤矿区的主要生态碳汇类型(...     

The potential contribution of sinks to meeting Kyoto Protocol commitments

The Kyoto Protocol to the climate convention makes provision for sink enhancement activities to contribute to meeting the greenhouse gas emissions limitation commitments of industrialised countries. This paper analyses the potential contribution of sink enhancement activities to meeting commitments of industrialised countries. Six scenarios covering different categories of eligible sinks are analysed. A range of the potential magnitude of the carbon sequestered by each category of sinks is tested. Since cost curves for the different types of sink enhancement activities are not available for most countries, a range of average costs is used with the lowest cost allowing maximum use of sinks. The effects considered are the impacts on compliance costs for OECD countries, economies in transition, and developing countries and the mix of actions used by industrialised countries to achieve compliance. In every scenario, at least some of the sinks have costs lower than the market price, so the larger the eligible sinks, the lower the compliance costs for industrialised countries. Greater use of sinks also reduces the net income received by the economies in transition and developing countries. Increased use of sinks lowers emission reductions implemented in industrialised countries and reduces non-sink activity under the Clean Development Mechanism.     

高度城市化地区碳汇资源基本特征及其提升策略

作为全球碳循环和当前低碳发展的重要组成内容之一,城市碳汇资源研究受到广泛关注.以高度城市化的深圳市为例,利用IPCC缺省碳汇系数法和相关研究模型,分析了城市碳汇资源的基本特征.结果显示:深圳市2005年碳汇总量约为347.85×104 t,其中林地、耕地、草地、湿地和海洋的碳汇总量分别为317.52×104、4.50×104、2.10×104、12.60×104和11.13×104 t.碳汇资源持续减少、碳汇资源量较低、碳汇品质较差、碳汇资源保护形势严峻、碳汇能力提升压力较大等是当前深圳碳汇资源的主要特征,表明要推动高度城市化地区低碳生态城市建设,必须重视城市碳汇资源相关工作的开展,促进碳汇资源持续增加和碳汇品质持续提升.结合深圳城市发展实际,从碳汇资源保护、碳汇资源建设、碳汇品质提升、碳汇服务交易等角度提出了深圳城市碳汇资源提升的主要策略.      

Modelling and optimisation for design of hydrogen networks for multi-period operation

Hydrogen management is a problem of increasing importance: hydrogen consumption of refineries is rising sharply with additional capacities of hydrocracking and hydrotreating units in order to comply with cleaner fuel specifications. Product Specifications for transportation fuels are becoming increasingly stringent to ensure production of environmentally more benign fuels. Hydrogen management techniques currently do not account for varying operating conditions of hydrogen consuming processes and assume constant operating conditions. A novel approach is developed for the design of flexible hydrogen networks that can remain optimally operable under multiple periods of operation. The proposed methodology for multi-period design of hydrogen networks can take into account pressure differences, maximum capacity of existing equipment, and optimal placement of new equipment such as compressors.     

中国森林碳汇的空间溢出效应与影响因素——基于大陆31个省（市、区）森林资源清查数据的空间计量分析

科学估算各地区森林碳汇量并探讨其空间关联性特征是制定差异化碳汇发展政策的重要基础。根据1988—2013年中国大陆31个省（市、区）的6次森林资源清查数据,论文利用森林蓄积量扩展法测算了各地区的森林碳汇量,进而检测和比较了省域间碳汇总量空间关联性的方向和强弱,最后运用空间计量模型分析了碳汇的溢出效应与影响因素。结果表明：1）我国的森林碳汇量整体呈上升态势,各地区间碳汇量差异明显,其中西藏、黑龙江等地区碳汇量丰富,而上海、北京等地则碳汇增长率较快;2）研究期内的Moran’s I指数整体表现为倒“S”型的波动变化特征,全国森林碳汇在省域空间分布上的差异性并不是随机的,而是具备一定关联性;3）我国森林碳汇存在显著的近邻空间溢出效应,森林资源采伐、森林受灾程度和降水量等因素对森林碳汇水平的影响显著。因此,研究认为：我国在发挥森林生态功能时,应当考虑省份间的地理区位因素,合理制定兼具差异化和协调性的森林碳汇发展政策。     

中国种植业碳汇盈余动态变化及地区差异分析——基于31个省(市、区)2000—2012年的面板数据

在科学测算31个省(市、区)2000—2012年种植业碳汇盈余量的基础上,利用基尼系数系统考察了其地区差距及动态演变特征。研究结论揭示:1)中国种植业碳汇盈余量呈现较为明显的空间差异性。基于总量变化趋势的不同可将31个地区划分为"持续增长型"、"波动增长型"、"波动下降型"与"持续下降型"等4类地区。16个地区种植业碳汇水平得到提升但增幅差异较大;余下15个地区则处于下降态势。2)基尼系数测算结果表明,中国种植业碳汇盈余的地区差距在样本考察期内虽存在一定的年际起伏,但总体处于逐步扩大趋势。从三大区域来看,东部地区差距变化幅度居中,经历了差距缩小期、波动扩大期和波动平稳期等变化阶段;中部地区差距变化幅度最大,其绝对差距也高于东、西部地区,经历了差距持续扩大期、波动平稳期、波动缩小期与小幅扩大期等变化阶段;西部地区差距变化幅度最小,经历了"扩大"与"缩小"的循环演变。     

Indoor air pollution by organic emissions from textile floor coverings. Climate chamber studies under dynamic conditions

The time dependence of the emission of organic compounds from a polyamide floor covering with styrene-butadiene-rubber (SBR) backing was studied in three climate chambers (0.03, 1.0 and 38 m³) at 23°C 5nd 45% RH. While volatile compounds such as toluene reach a maximum concentration in the gas phase within 1 h and decrease in concentration to less than 2% within 60 h, the concentration of less volatile compounds, such as 4-phenylcyclohexene, decreases slowly over a period of months.If the chamber is well mixed and a defined chamber loading is maintained the observed concentrations do not depend on the chamber size, the wall material and air velocity. The concentration of the observed emissions is roughly proportional to the chamber loading. Surprisingly it is not inversely proportional to the air exchange rate. Rather, at high air exchange rates mass transfer from the carpet to the gas phase is enhanced.The “decreasing source models” of Dunn and Tichenor (Atmospheric Environment22, 885–894, 1988) have been applied to the data. They allow the extrapolation of experimental data beyond the time available for measurement.The model calculations reveal the presence of sink effects. The role of the chamber walls as sinks can be determined more reliably if constant sources of an organic compound are placed into the chamber and their increase in concentration with time is compared with the theoretical predictions neglecting sink effects.     

Trees as carbon sinks and sources in the European Union

The carbon (C) sinks and sources of trees that may be accounted for under Article 3.3 of the Kyoto Protocol during the first commitment period from 2008 to 2012 were estimated for the countries of the European Union (EU) based on existing forest inventory data. Two sets of definitions for the accounted activities, afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, were applied. Applying the definitions by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the trees were estimated to be a C source in eight and a C sink in seven countries, and in the whole EU a C source of 5.4 Tg year⁻¹. Applying the definitions by the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC), the trees were estimated to be a C source in three and a C sink in 12 countries, and in the whole EU a C sink of 0.1 Tg year⁻¹. These estimates are small compared with the C sink of trees in all EU forests, 63 Tg year⁻¹, the anthropogenic CO₂ emissions of the EU, 880 Tg C year⁻¹, and the reduction target of the CO₂ emissions, 8%. In individual countries, the estimated C sink of the trees accounted for under Article 3.3 was at largest 8% and the C source 12% compared with the CO₂ emissions.     

Bioenergy and the forest industry in Finland after the adoption of the Kyoto protocol

In Finland the percentage of biomass fuels of total primary energy supply is relatively high, close to 17%. The share of biomass in the total electricity generation is as much as 10%. This high share in Finland is mainly due to the cogeneration of electricity and heat within forest industry using biomass-based by-products and wastes as fuels. Forest industry is also a large user of fossil-based energy. About 28% of total primary energy consumption in Finland takes place in forest industry, causing about 16% of the total fossil carbon dioxide emissions.The Kyoto protocol limits the fossil CO₂ and other greenhouse gas emissions and provides some incentives to the Finnish forest sector. There are trade-offs among the raw-material, energy and carbon sink uses of the forests. Fossil emissions can be reduced e.g. by using more wood and producing chemical pulp instead of mechanical one. According to the calculation rules of the Kyoto protocol Finnish forests in 2008–2012 are estimated to form a carbon source of 0.36 Tg C a⁻¹ due to land use changes. Factually the forest biomass will still be a net carbon sink between 3.5 and 8.8 Tg C a⁻¹. Because the carbon sinks of existing forests are not counted in the protocol, there is an incentive to increase wood use in those and to decrease the real net carbon sink. Also the criteria for sustainable forestry could still simultaneously be met.     

资源区域流动的驱动因子分析与流动潜力测度——以晋煤输出为例

论文采用国家铁路省际间煤炭资源的交流数据、动力煤价格数据,以全国最大的煤炭输出省--山西为例,运用回归分析等统计方法,分析了资源区域流动的驱动因子。基于场论,提出了测度资源区域流动潜力的方法。主要结论有:①资源区域流动的主要驱动因子有距离、价格差;②在显著性水平α=0.05下,区域煤炭价格差与晋煤净输流量呈正向变化,但线性无关,源汇间距离与晋煤净输流量呈线性负相关;③2005年晋煤净输流量与源汇间距离符合F=e^9.091-0.003D的Growth回归模型;④资源势差涵盖了影响煤炭流动的流量和距离等2个主要因子,是测度资源流动潜力的一种有效方法。     

Source profiles by unique ratios (SPUR) analysis: Determination of source profiles from receptor-site streaker samples

A streaker total filter particulate sampler was operated for three weeks at an urban site in Milan, Italy. The filters were analysed by Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE), yielding hourly concentrations of 15 elements. The data are used to extract source elemental profiles using a new method, SPUR (Source Profiles by Unique Ratios). The SPUR technique is a combination of event identification using unique elemental ratios in sources, and correction for background events by identifying events of differing time constants in the time domain. The elemental ratios are identified in plots of log([S]/[T])vs[T], referred to as SPUR plots, where T is a (non-unique) tracer and [S] is an element establishing the unique ratio. Using the SPUR technique, eight distinct sources are identified and profiles established. The sources are: two metallurgical smelters, two crustal sources, a potassium-rich source, automotive, regional crustal and regional sulphur. Results are compared with source profiles derived from Absolute Principal Component Scores analysis. SPUR analysis demonstrates powerful capability for deriving source profiles from receptor samples, including having the capability of distinguishing between sources of similar composition without using a unique tracer element.     

1975—2005年中亚土地利用/覆被变化对森林生态系统碳储量的影响

土地利用/覆被变化(LUCC)对碳循环的影响研究已覆盖全球绝大多数地区,但中亚LUCC对森林生态系统碳库的影响仍属未知。论文以人工林面积、森林产品收获产量及林地转移面积为基础数据,应用Bookkeeping模型,分析了1975—2005年期间三种LUCC方式对中亚森林碳库的影响。近30 a LUCC对其碳库的影响总体表现为碳汇,固碳量为3.07 Tg。植树造林表现出强烈的碳汇功能,总固碳量为12.97 Tg。森林采伐是最主要的碳释放来源,共释放碳5.80 Tg。林地转移呈现较强的碳释放特征,共排放为4.10 Tg。结果表明1975—2005年该区域LUCC对森林碳库具有明显的增汇效应。研究结果将有利于减少LUCC对全球碳收支影响的不确定性。     

制氨厂尾气中CO的变压吸附提纯

制氨厂尾气含有大量CO,若采用有效的分离、纯化工艺,可获得碳一化工(C1)所需的高纯度CO.本文研究了用PU1型吸附剂变压吸附提纯制氨厂尾气,同时比较了PU1型吸附剂和ZMS-5A型沸石的性能.试验采用一段法变压吸附工艺研究了不同操作条件下CO的纯化和回收,气体流速为0.2～0.8 m³/h,并对工艺条件进行了优化.结果表明PU1吸附性能较好,在吸附压力0.3 MPa、原料气CO浓度30%时,CO回收率为75%,CO产品气的纯度可大于98%.     

Forest land use change in the philippines and climate change mitigation

Tropical forests in countries like thePhilippines are important sources and sinks of carbon(C). The paper analyzes the contribution of Philippineforests in climate change mitigation. Since the 1500s,deforestation of 20.9 M ha (10⁶ ha) of Philippineforests contributed 3.7 Pg (10¹⁵ g) of C to theatmosphere of which 2.6 Pg were released this century. At present, forest land uses store 1091 Tg(10¹² g) of C and sequester 30.5 Tg C/yr whilereleasing 11.4 Tg C/yr through deforestation andharvesting. In the year 2015, it is expected that thetotal C storage will decline by 8% (1005 Tg) andtotal rate of C sequestration will increase by 17%(35.5 Tg/yr). This trend is due to the decline innatural forest area accompanied by an increase intree plantation area. We have shown that uncertaintyin national C estimates still exists because they arereadily affected by the source of biomass and Cdensity data. Philippine forests can act as C sink by:conserving existing C sinks, expanding C stocks, andsubstituting wood products for fossil fuels. Here weanalyze the possible implications of the provisions ofthe Kyoto Protocol to Philippine forests. Finally, wepresent current research and development efforts ontropical forests and climate change in the Philippinesto improve assessments of their role in the nations Cbudgets.     

海岸带蓝碳生态系统碳库规模与投融资机制

气候变化已成为当前各国面临的严峻挑战之一,通过“碳减排”和“碳增汇”实现碳中和是我国应对气候变化的关键途径。红树林、盐沼和海草床等海岸带蓝碳生态系统具有巨大的、长期可持续的碳汇功能,因而,保护和修复海岸带生态系统是具有可操作性的生态增汇途径之一。本文探究了中国红树林、盐沼和海草床等典型海岸带蓝碳生态系统碳库规模及其经济价值,并对浙江省霓屿红树林湿地和上海市鹦鹉洲盐沼湿地两个海岸带滨海湿地恢复区的碳汇能力开展调查和评估。结果表明,通过海岸带生态修复扩增蓝碳是实现碳中和的有效途径。研究结果可为面向碳中和的海岸带生态系统恢复及蓝碳交易体系的建立提供理论基础和数据支撑。     

Full accounting of the greenhouse gas budget in the forestry of China

Forest management to increase carbon (C) sinks and reduce C emissions and forest resource utilization to store C and substitute for fossil fuel have been identified as attractive mitigation strategies. However, the greenhouse gas (GHG) budget of carbon pools and sinks in China are not fully understood, and the forestry net C sink must be determined. The objective of this study was to analyze potential forest management mitigation strategies by evaluating the GHG emissions from forest management and resource utilization and clarify the forestry net C sink, and its driving factors in China via constructing C accounting and net mitigation of forestry methodology. The results indicated that the GHG emissions under forest management and resource utilization were 17.7 Tg Ce/year and offset 8.5% of biomass and products C sink and GHG mitigation from substitution effects from 2000 to 2014, resulting in a net C sink of 189.8 Tg Ce/year. Forest resource utilization contributed the most to the national forestry GHG emissions, whereas the main driving factor underlying regional GHG emissions varied. Afforestation dominated the GHG emissions in the southwest and northwest, whereas resource utilization contributed the most to GHG emissions in the north, northeast, east, and south. Furthermore, decreased wood production, improved product use efficiency, and forests developed for bioenergy represented important mitigation strategies and should be targeted implementation in different regions. Our study provided a forestry C accounting in China and indicated that simulations of these activities could provide novel insights for mitigation strategies and have implications for forest management in other countries.     

Assessment of GHG inventories from the LUCF sector of Annex-I countries

Reporting of CO₂ emissions and removals from the landuse change and forestry (LUCF) sector is assessed in this paper based onthe National GHG inventories and the National Communications submittedby the Annex-I countries. LUCF sector is a net sink for 27 countries outof 31 countries and a source for Australia, Estonia, Lithuania and UnitedKingdom. LUCF sector for Annex-I countries, as a group is a net sink of2035 Tg CO₂ (555 Tg Carbon). The sink feature is largely due toCO₂ removal by the existing forests, plantations and other trees.Forest and grassland conversion (deforestation) is not a major source ofCO₂ in the Annex-I countries. Many Annex-I countries have notfully adopted the reporting format of IPCC limiting the comparability andtransparency. Several Annex-I countries have modified the CO₂emission/removal estimates for 1990, but have not explained the reasons.Reporting of uncertainty is very limited. The methods adopted andparticularly reporting is inadequate to meet the requirements foroperationalising the Kyoto Protocol articles relevant to LUCF;comparability, transparency and verifiability.     

基于土地利用变化的陕西省植被碳汇提质增效优先区识别

在“双碳”目标背景下,陆地植被生态系统碳汇是实现碳中和目标的重要方式。为有效识别植被碳汇服务功能提质增效的优先区,利用InVEST模型定量评估陕西省植被碳储量时空演变特征及分布格局,分析土地利用/覆被类型变化对碳储量变化的影响,研究林草生态建设碳汇增长空间差异,确定林草生态建设提质增效对象区域。结果表明：（1）陕西省土地利用类型主要以耕地、林地、草地为主,土地利用类型转移变化也主要发生在三者之间;（2）1980― 2020年陕西省生态系统碳储量总体增加91.88×10⁶ t,增幅3.16%,呈现出“总体上南高北低、局部地区明显过高或过低”的地带性分布特征;（3）退耕还林（草）工程对碳汇能力提升效果明显,存在全局空间相关性,表现为一定的空间趋同集聚现象;（4）陕北地区为生态保护修复工程极优先区和优先区,陕南地区为中等优先区,关中地区为一般优先区。研究基于不同区县生态系统碳汇年均增长率的差异,确定生态治理优先区域,可为实现生态修复工程主导模式的分区管理以及碳汇能力提质增效提供参考。     

Integrated scenario modelling of energy,greenhouse gas emissions and forestry

Preventing dangerous climate change requires actions on several sectors. Mitigation strategies have focused primarily on energy, because fossil fuels are the main source of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Another important sector recently gaining more attention is the forest sector. Deforestation is responsible for approximately one fifth of the global emissions, while growing forests sequester and store significant amounts of carbon. Because energy and forest sectors and climate change are highly interlinked, their interactions need to be analysed in an integrated framework in order to better understand the consequences of different actions and policies, and find the most effective means to reduce emissions. This paper presents a model, which integrates energy use, forests and greenhouse gas emissions and describes the most important linkages between them. The model is applied for the case of Finland, where integrated analyses are of particular importance due to the abundant forest resources, major forest carbon sink and strong linkage with the energy sector. However, the results and their implications are discussed in a broader perspective. The results demonstrate how full integration of all net emissions into climate policy could increase the economic efficiency of climate change mitigation. Our numerical scenarios showed that enhancing forest carbon sinks would be a more cost-efficient mitigation strategy than using forests for bioenergy production, which would imply a lower sink. However, as forest carbon stock projections involve large uncertainties, their full integration to emission targets can introduce new and notable risks for mitigation strategies.