TWO DECADES OF MINERAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT: THE ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS

The Department of Technical Co-operation for Development of the United Nations Secretariat in New York, which now incorporates the Division of Natural Resources and Energy (formerly the Centre for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport) has, over the past 20 years, assisted the geology and mineral development programmes of most of the world's developing countries. Funding for this technical co-operation has been provided mainly by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) with roughly equivalent amounts by recipient governments, generally in the form of national facilities, staff and local operating costs. The total UNDP expenditures of some $170 million have supported more than 200 projects so far. At present, about 45 projects are operational with a total budget of about $55 million. The large-scale operational activities of the United Nations programme in the past have concentrated primarily on systematic mineral exploration combined with strengthening of national institutions, basic geological mapping and feasibility investigations. Associated with the United Nations programme are the projects of the United Nations Revolving Fund for Natural Resources Exploration, more recently established to provide an additional source of exploration financing in recognition of the needs of developing countries which are not being adequately met by their own resources and the limited resources available within the United Nations Development Programme. Le Département de la coopération technique pour le développement du Secrétariat des Nations Unies à New York dont fait maintenant partie la Division des ressources naturelles et de l'énergie (anciennement le Centre des ressources naturelles, de l'énergie et des transports) a apporté son assistance pendant ces vingt demières années aux programmes de mise en valeur de la géologie et des minéraux de la plupart des pays en développement du monde. Le financement de cette coopération technique a été essentiellement assuré par le Programme des Nations Unies pour le développement (PNUD) et les gouvernements receveurs qui ont fourni des sommes approximativement équivalentes, généralement sous forme d'installations, de personnel et de frais d'exploitation au niveau national. Le montant total des dépenses du PNUD, s'élevant à quelque $170 millions, a financé jusqu'à présent l'exécution de plus de 200 projets. Auparavant, les activités opérationnelles de grande échelle du programme des Nations Unies ont été dirigées principalement vers l'exploration systématique des minéraux conjointement avec le renforcement des institutions nationales, l'établissement de cartes géologiques de base et les enquêtes de faisabilité. Les projets du Fonds autorenouvelable des Nations Unies pour l'exploration des ressources naturelles, associés au programme des Nations Unies, ont été récemment établis afin de fournir une source supplémentaire de financement de l'exploration pour répondre aux besoins des pays en développement que leurs propres ressources de même que celles disponibles mais limitées du Programme de développement des Nations Unies n'arrivent pas à satisfaire de manière adéquate. El Departamento de Cooperación Técnica para el Desarrollo del Secretariado de las Naciones Unidas, que incorpora la División de Recursos Naturales y Energía (anteriormente Centro de Recursos Naturales, Energía y Transportes) ha, en los últimos 20 años, asistido a los programas de geología y desarrollo de minerales en la mayoría de los países en desarrollo. La financiación para esta cooperación técnica fue proveída principalmente por el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD) y por los Gobiernos, en especie, por un monto aproximadamente igual a la contribución del PNUD. La contribución total del PNUD de unos $170 millones ha sido aplicado a más de 200 proyectos hasta ahora. Acerca de 45 proyectos están en ejecución al presente por un monto aproximado de $55 millones. En el pasado los proyectos de gran escala del programa de actividades de las Naciones Unidas se han concertado principalmente en la exploración sistemática de minerales combinada con el reforzamiento de instituciones nacionales, geológico basico y estudios de factibilidad. Asociados al programa arriba mencionado se ejecutan los proyectos del Fondo Revolvente de las Naciones Unidas para la Exploración de Recursos Naturales, fondo recientemente establecido con el objeto de proveer financiación adicional a las actividades de exploración. La limitación de los recursos propios de los países en desarrollo y la del Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarollo para hacer frente a las necesidades de dichos países han urgido la creación del Fondo.     

COBALT: A STRATEGIC AND CRITICAL RESOURCE FOR INDUSTRIALIZED NATIONS, SUPPLIED BY DEVELOPING NATIONS

In 1978, the world cobalt market was abruptly thrust into a state of great uncertainty, with soaring prices, limited supply, and accelerating demand. A critical shortage threatened to develop but never really materialized. However, this situation dramatized Western nations' vulnerability to supply disruption. A number of factors, including limited natural occurrence, unfavourable market conditions, and accelerating demand for cobalt, combined to bring about these unstable conditions.
En 1978, le marché mondial du cobalt a été soudainement plongé dans un état de désorganisation, avec des prix en flèche, peu d'approvisionnement et une demande accélérée. La situation menaçait de devenir critique mais n'a jamais atteint un point dangereux. Cependant, ceci a fait ressortir combien vulnérables pouvaient être les pays occidentaux à l'interruption des ressources. Un certain nombre de facteurs parmi lesquels le nombre limité de gisements, des conditions de marché défavorables et la demande accélérée pour le cobalt se sont combinés pour créer ces conditions d'instabilité.
En 1978 el mercado mundial del cobalto se encontró abruptamente en un estado de gran incertidumbre, con precios crecientes, oferta restringida y la demanda en acelerado aumento. Aunque la amenaza de una paralizante carestía del cobalto no se materializó, esta situación sirvió para dramatizar la vulnerabilidad de los países occidentales a la interrupción del suministro de este recurso. Un número de factores tales como la limitada disponibilidad de estos recursos, las condiciones desfavorables del mercado y el crecimiento acelerado de la demanda, se combinaron para dar lugar a esta situación inestable.     

POST-GRADUATE TRAINING AND RESEARCH IN APPLIED SCIENCE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: THE CASE OF MINERAL EXPLORATION

If a developing country decides to devote scarce human and material resources to post-graduate training and research in an applied science - based on a realistic assessment that the potential benefits from such an investment are likely to exceed the benefits from alternative investments - several approaches exist. The authors examine these alternatives as they apply to mineral exploration. They argue that if recourse is made to overseas training, programmes should be restricted by aid agencies to universities that will provide applied research subjects in the trainees' own countries. 'Twinning' arrangements between institutions in developing and developed countries may be useful if faculty in the developed country university are interested in and available for overseas work and if university administrations are aware of potential problems. The authors also discuss the provision of short-term non-academic fellowships in applied research, an approach which has not been used to extent it deserves.     

DEVELOPING COMPETITION FOR WATER IN THE URBANIZING AREAS OF COLORADO1

ABSTRACT: Rapid population growth in the metropolitan area of Denver, Colorado, is causing conflicts over water use. Two cities, Thomton and Westminster, have begun condemnation proceedings against three irrigation companies to secure agricultural water rights for municipal use. This is the first condemnation proceeding against irrigation water rights for municipal use. Should the suit succeed, over 30,000 acres of presently irrigated land will lose its water supply. There are about four hundred landowners in the area; two hundred of these are commercial farmers, including truck, dairy and specialty farms. Total agricultural production amounts to about $8 million per year. About 561 jobs related to agriculture will disappear along with about $4 million in not income. Only 6.4 percent of the farmland along the Front Range is irrigated. Continued urban growth will put pressure on the water supply of much of this land. The interested parties of the region should cooperate to lessen the impact of urban growth on agricultural lands and water by forming a metropolitan water district. Such a district could share costs of development of additional municipal water and develop systems where municipalities would recycle waste water back to the irrigated lands.     

A SYSTEMS RESOURCES APPROACH TO CITIZEN PARTICIPATION: THE CASE OF THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS1

ABSTRACT: The thesis of this paper is that the citizen participation process provides necessary, but not sufficient conditions to affect substantive change in federal water resource management agencies' planning and decisionmaking. That is, in its present form, the citizen participation process has been observed to occur outside of the normal decision arenas of federal resource management agencies. The paper reviews concepts of citizen participation and defines some theoretical problems inherent with them. Then, a strategy for the structuring of a citizen participation process is proposed. This strategy is based upon the notion that citizen support for federally sponsored programs are essential if such projects are to be implemented. Therefore, an approach which integrates citizen valves with those held by other institutions and the agency is suggested. In conclusion, the relevancy of actively developing and including citizen input to the water resource planning process is illustrated by a discussion of three cases of the Corps of Engineers and Urban Studies planning process, in different metropolitan regions.     

PETROLEUM IMPORTING DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A NEW OIL FRONTIER

The majority of developing countries depend on imported petroleum to fulfil most of their energy requirements. Many are not able to do so without substantial assistance from abroad. Meanwhile, various studies indicate the existence of a large undiscovered potential of petroleum resources in these countries. In the following article, the authors review some of the proposals for assistance to petroleum importing developing countries, and, at the same time, launch their own proposal for a modest exploration programme in the least developed countries which could enable them to become self-sufficient in petroleum in the near future.     

OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION IN A LOW INCOME DEVELOPING COUNTRY: THE CASE OF HAITI

This article assesses the possibilities of establishing more efficient patterns of energy use in Haiti, a country increasingly dependent on imported petroleum products to fuel its economy. The author examines the various consuming sectors of the economy and the options for the use of indigenous fuels in place of petroleum. She next describes the potential roles national energy planning and foreign assistance can play in solving the more pressing of Haiti's energy problems. Four functions are urgently needed: collection of basic energy data, co-ordination of alternative energy development, establishment of an energy office in the government and an effort to co-ordinate bilateral and multilateral assistance in the energy field. Cet article évalue les possibilités d'établir des modèles d'utilisation d'énergie plus efficaces en Haïti, pays de plus en plus dépendant des importations de produits pétroliers pour son économie. L'auteur examine les divers secteurs de consommation de l'économie et les choix qui existent en ce qui concerne l'utilisation des combustibles domestiques à la place du pétrole. L'auteur décrit ensuite les rôles potentiels que peuvent jouer la planification nationale de l'énergie et l'assistance extérieure dans la résolution des problèmes énergétiques les plus urgents du pays. Quatre lignes d'action sont requises d'urgence: le rassemblement des données énergétiques de base, la coordination du développement de sources d'énergie de remplacement, la création d'une direction de l'énergie à l'échelon gouvernemental et la mise en oeuvre d'une politique coordonnée d'assistance bilatérale et multilatérale dans le domaine de l'énergie. Este articulo evalúa las posibilidades de establecer estructuras de consumo de energía mas eficientes en Haiti, pais que tiene una dependencia creciente en el petróleo importado. El autor examina varios sectores consumidores de energia y las opciones existentes para sustituir el petróleo por fuentes energéticas nacionales. Luego examina el rol potencial de la planificación energética nacional y la asistencia extranjera en resolver los problemas energéticos más agudos en Haiti. Se establece la necesidad urgente de las siguientes funciones: colección de información básica sobre energía, coordinación del desarrollo energético, establecimiento de una institución que se ocupe de energía en el gobierno y coordinación de la asistencia bilateral y multilateral en el campo de la energía.     

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES IN PAKISTAN: A CASE STUDY

The author describes the institutional structure for water planning and management in Pakistan. He goes on to assess its present effectiveness and draws conclusions regarding action needed for future improvement.     

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND THE CHOICE OF TECHNOLOGY

Asserting that the major problem in water resources management stems not so much from a lack of alternative technologies as from a failure to make a choice which is appropriate to the several factors involved, the author addresses himself to these factors and to the criteria which should be applied in the decision-making process. Particular attention is devoted to a consideration of the incentives, and of the institutional, infra-structural, analytical and policy measures required to facilitate the adoption of 'socially optimal' technology, including the relationship of these measures to the promotion of effective water resources management technology within the broader economic, social and cultural situations specific to each country.     

FINANCING THE PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

This paper first examines the financial requirements for development of water resources in developing countries by 1990. Estimates of requirements for irrigation and drainage, community water supply and sanitation, hydropower, and assessment and planning are presented. In the second part of the paper some measures for mobilizing financial resources to meet indicated requirements are suggested. These include: choosing among available multilateral and bilateral assistance programmes at the international level; budgetary allocations and water pricing at the national level; and community participation at the local level. Dans un premier temps, cet article étudie les exigences financièes de la mise en valeur des ressources en eau dans les pays en développement jusqu'en 1990. Il fait l'évaluation de ces exigences dans les domaines de l'irrigation et du drainage, de l'approvisionnement en eau des communautés, de l'aménagement sanitaire, de l'hydroélectricité, de l'évaluation et de la planification. La deuxième partie du rapport présente des suggestions concernant la mobilisation de ces ressources financières pour répondre aux besoins susmentionnés. Celles-ci comprennent: les programmes d'assistance multilatérale et bilatérale au niveau international, les allocations budgétaires et la tarification d'eau au niveau national et la participation des communautés au niveau local. Este artículo examina primeramente los requerimientos financieros para el desarrollo de los recursos hídricos en los países en desarrollo hasta 1990. Se incluyen los estimados para irrigación y drenaje, suministro de agua potable, saneamiento e hidroelectricidad, así como para la evaluación y planificación. En la segunda parte del artículo se sugieren algunas medidas para la movilización de recursos financieros destinados a cubrir estos requerimientos. Estas medidas incluyen: la selección entre programas de asistencia bilateral y multilateral, a nivel internacional; asignaciones presupuestales para los recursos hídricos y tarificación, a nivel nacional; y participación de las comunidades a nivel local.     

DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND/WATER RESOURCES: THE EVERGLADES,AGRICULTURE, AND SOUTH FLORIDA1

ABSTRACT: South Florida and the Everglades have been under intensive development since 1850 by Federal and State governments who encouraged and financed extensive drainage and hydraulic changes, primarily for agricultural settlement. Agricultural development of the sugar industry in the northern Everglades adjacent to Lake Okeechobee rapidly progressed only after the 1900s. Political and resource management conflicts have arisen because policies which once favored development are now being reversed by policies and regulation efforts to restore and conserve natural ecosystems. Currently, the environmental and ecological impacts of agricultural land use adjacent to natural wtlands of the Everglades are being assessed. The objectives of this paper are: (1) to outline the historical development of south Florida and the sugar industry, (2) to relate this history to political and management policy changes occurring as it pertains to ecosystem restoration and the multiuser competition for water/land resources, and (3) to propose how integrated resource management might be utilized for a sustainable Everglades and south Florida. This paper outlines the historical paradox of urban settlement, land development, and agricultural production, with efforts in the recent decade to acquire, manage, and preserve land and water resources for natural areas conservation. Only though the use of integrated resource management will the defined resource conflicts be mediated.     

WATER RESOURCES AND HUMAN HEALTH: THE VIEWPOINT OF MEDICAL GEOGRAPHY1

ABSTRACT: Medical geography studies both areal patterns of human health and disease and the environmental and cultural factors that contribute to such conditions. In such studies water resources are of major importance, not only because they are essential for life and their scenic beauty is of inspirational value, but also because they are involved, directly or indirectly, in more than 80 percent of all disease. The direct involvements result from various disease causing agents sometimes found in surface or ground water organic ones such as bacteria, worms, etc., which are known as pathogens, and inorganic ones such as trace elements and synthetic toxic chemicals. Surface waters may have indirect effects also, for they may serve as habitats or breeding places for organisms that do not themselves cause human disease but that serve as vectors or hosts for such pathogens. This paper will discuss these various roles of water resources in both endemic and epidemic disease occurrences and ways in which various human activities domestic, economic, recreational, or religious — increase or reduce our exposure to such diseases.     

THE MILWAUKEE POLLUTION CASE - IMPLICATIONS FOR WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

ABSTRACT: The Illinois v. Milwaukee Federal District Court decision is the most far reaching application yet of the federal common law of nuisance to interstate water pollution conflicts. Although a Federal Appelate Court recently rescinded part of the district court decision, Milwaukee must still upgrade its metropolitan sewage system to a level beyond that required by federal and state regulations. The improvements must be completed with or without federal aid. The case points out the apparent inability of the Clean Water Act, the most comprehensive federal legislation affecting the nation's water quality, to deal with certain interstate water quality conflicts. The Milwaukee decision could set a precedent for similar settlements elsewhere which may in turn affect the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's water quality clean up program. A more integrated, ecosystem conscious approach to management of shared water resources (e.g., the Great Lakes) would help reduce the need for court decisions like Illinois v. Milwaukee.     

NATURAL GAS PROSPECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND THE ROLE OF LNG TRANSPORTATION

Natural gas may provide a major contribution to the world energy supply during the next few decades. The developing countries command about 50 per cent of the world proved natural gas reserves, with gas accounting for only 6 per cent of commercial primary energy production. The challenging task of expanding gas production and utilization in the developing countries, especially through effective use of gas associated with petroleum deposits and transportation of gas in liquefied form (LNG), will require long-term technical co-operation policy commitments with regard to investment, manpower and the transfer of technology. The article is intended to analyse the basic factors involved in these problems. Au cours des prochaines décennies, le gaz naturel peut constituer un apport considérable à l'approvisionnement énergétique mondial. Les pays en développement détiennent approximativement 50 pour cent des réserves mondiales prouvées de gaz naturel, le gaz représentant seulement 6 pour cent de la production d'énergie primaire commerciale. Le défi lancé par la production et l'utilisation croissantes de gaz dans les pays en développement, particulièrement par l'utilisation efficace du gaz lié aux gisements de pétrole et le transport du gaz liquéfié (GNL), requiert des engagements à long terme en matière de politique de coopération technique dans le domaine des investissements, de la main-d'oeuvre et du transfert de technologie. Cet article a pour but d'analyser les facteurs fondamentaux à prendre en considération lorsqu'on traite de ces problèmes. El gas natural podría representar una gran contribucíon a la oferta mundial de energía dentro de las próximas décadas. Los países en desarrollo poseen cerca del 50 porciento de la reserva provada mundial de gas y solamente el 6 porciento de la producción primaria de energía comercial proviene del gas. La tarea de expandir la producción y utilización de gas en los países en desarrollo, especialmente ia utilización efectiva en forma líquida (LNG) de gas asociado al petróleo, requiere de compromisos de cooperación técnica a largo plazo en lo referente a inversiones, recursos humanos y transferencia de tecnología. Este artículo intenta analizar los factores básicos pertinentes a dicha tarea.     

APPLICATION OF BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS TO THE INVESTIGATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUNDWATER RESOURCES1

Borehole geophysics comprises the execution of physical measurements in boreholes and the interpretation of the results in terms of rock properties and other data useful in subsurface investigations. This article briefly reviews the borehole geophysical methods that have found acceptance in hydrology and their main applications.