Greenhouse gas fluxes in southeastern U.S. coastal plain wetlands under contrasting land uses

Whether through sea level rise or wetland restoration, agricultural soils in coastal areas will be inundated at increasing rates, renewing connections to sensitive surface waters and raising critical questions about environmental trade-offs. Wetland restoration is often implemented in agricultural catchments to improve water quality through nutrient removal. Yet flooding of soils can also increase production of the greenhouse gases nitrous oxide and methane, representing a potential environmental trade-off. Our study aimed to quantify and compare greenhouse gas emissions from unmanaged and restored forested wetlands, as well as actively managed agricultural fields within the North Carolina coastal plain, USA. In sampling conducted once every two months over a two-year comparative study, we found that soil carbon dioxide flux (range: 8000-64 800 kg CO2 x ha(-1) x yr(-1)) comprised 66-100% of total greenhouse gas emissions from all sites and that methane emissions (range: -6.87 to 197 kg CH4 x ha(-1) x yr(-1)) were highest from permanently inundated sites, while nitrous oxide fluxes (range: -1.07 to 139 kg N2O x ha(-1) x yr(-1)) were highest in sites with lower water tables. Contrary to predictions, greenhouse gas fluxes (as CO2 equivalents) from the restored wetland were lower than from either agricultural fields or unmanaged forested wetlands. In these acidic coastal freshwater ecosystems, the conversion of agricultural fields to flooded young forested wetlands did not result in increases in greenhouse gas emissions.     

湿地生态系统甲烷排放研究进展

湿地是大气CH4的主要自然来源。天然湿地每年向大气中排放的CH4占全球CH4排放总量的15％～30％。在厌氧环境条件下，CH4通过甲烷产生菌的作用而产生；在氧化条件下，CH4通过土壤中微生物的作用而被氧化和迁移。CH4从土壤中的排放和吸收经过几个生物和物理过程。湿地中CH4通量在时空两个方面都有较大变化，这种在空间上的变化与CH4产生、氧化和迁移过程有关，同时受不同地域的特殊因素如水文状况、植物群落、土壤温度等的影响。湿地水文条件是决定CH4排放的关键控制因子，表层土壤温度与CH4排放通量成正相关关系，土壤中氮含量也对CH4排放通量起作用。环境因子与CH4排放间的交互作用是非常复杂的，与CO2相比，CH4的产生在时空两方面更易于变化。目前关于湿地CH4排放的模型多为一维模型，主要模拟CH4在土壤中的产生过程，以及从上覆土壤、植被和水体进入大气的迁移过程；模型一般涉及不同深度的土壤温度、水位和净初级生产力。     

Understanding Recent Climate Change

Abstract:  The Earth's atmosphere has a natural greenhouse effect, without which the global mean surface temperature would be about 33 °C lower and life would not be possible. Human activities have increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and other gases in trace amounts. This has enhanced the greenhouse effect, resulting in surface warming. Were it not for the partly offsetting effects of increased aerosol concentrations, the increase in global mean surface temperature over the past 100 years would be larger than observed. Continued surface warming through the 21st century is inevitable and will likely have widespread ecological impacts. The magnitude and rate of warming for the global average will be largely dictated by the strength and direction of climate feedbacks, thermal inertia of the oceans, the rate of greenhouse gas emissions, and aerosol concentrations. Because of regional expressions of climate feedbacks, changes in atmospheric circulation, and a suite of other factors, the magnitude and rate of warming and changes in other key climate elements, such as precipitation, will not be uniform across the planet. For example, due to loss of its floating sea-ice cover, the Arctic will warm the most .     

Aquatic herbivores facilitate the emission of methane from wetlands

Wetlands are significant sources of atmospheric methane. Methane produced by microbes enters roots and escapes to the atmosphere through the shoots of emergent wetland plants. Herbivorous birds graze on helophytes, but their effect on methane emission remains unknown. We hypothesized that grazing on shoots of wetland plants can modulate methane emission from wetlands. Diffusive methane emission was monitored inside and outside bird exclosures, using static flux chambers placed over whole vegetation and over single shoots. Both methods showed significantly higher methane release from grazed vegetation. Surface-based diffusive methane emission from grazed plots was up to five times higher compared to exclosures. The absence of an effect on methane-cycling microbial processes indicated that this modulating effect acts on the gas transport by the plants. Modulation of methane emission by animal-plant-microbe interactions deserves further attention considering the increasing bird populations and changes in wetland vegetation as a consequence of changing land use and climate change.     

Methane and carbon dioxide dynamics in wetland mesocosms: effects of hydrology and soils.

Methane and carbon dioxide fluxes in created and restored wetlands, and the influence of hydrology and soils on these fluxes, have not been extensively documented. Minimizing methane fluxes while maximizing productivity is a relevant goal for wetland restoration and creation projects. In this study we used replicated wetland mesocosms to investigate relationships between contrasting hydrologic and soil conditions, and methane and carbon dioxide fluxes in emergent marsh systems. Hydrologic treatments consisted of an intermittent flooding regime vs. continuously inundated conditions, and soil treatments utilized hydric vs. non-hydric soils. Diurnal patterns of methane flux were examined to shed light on the relationship between emergent macrophytes and methane emissions for comparison with vegetation-methane relationships reported from natural wetlands. Microbially available organic carbon content was significantly greater in hydric soils than nonhydric soils, despite similar organic matter contents in the contrasting soil types. Mesocosms with hydric soils exhibited the greatest rates of methane flux regardless of hydrology, but intermittent inundation of hydric soils produced significantly lower methane fluxes than continuous inundatation of hydric soils. Methane fluxes were not affected significantly by hydrologic regime in mesocosms containing non-hydric soils. There were no diurnal differences in methane flux, and carbon dioxide and methane fluxes were not significantly correlated. The highest rates of CO2 uptake occurred in the continuously inundated treatment with non-hydric soils, and there were no significant differences in nighttime respiration rates between the treatments. Implications for hydrologic design of created and restored wetlands are discussed.     

稻田甲烷排放的研究进展

稻田是甲烷的重要排放源之一。文章对稻田甲烷的最新研究进展作了较为详尽的综述,包括稻田甲烷排放的机理、规律;重点分析了影响稻田甲烷排放的因素以及控制稻田甲烷排放的措施。最后指出了今后的研究重点应以现有的田间数据为基础,建立稻田温室气体排放的综合模型,预测稻田温室气体排放变化。     

几种植物对潜流型湖滨湿地中氮磷的处理效果比较

湖滨带是连接湖泊水域生态系统与陆地生态系统的一个功能过渡区,是湖泊的最后一道保护屏障。在河流的入湖口建造湖滨湿地,可有效净化入湖水中携带的部分有机污染物、营养盐等。湿地净化污染物的机理极为复杂,其中植被起着重要的作用。选择适当的植物是构建湿地系统的关键。以云南省抚仙湖北岸的湖滨湿地——马料河潜流型湿地为研究对象,探讨了美人蕉(Cannaindica),菖蒲(AcoruscalamusLinn),伞竹(Cyperusalternifolius),香蒲(Typhaelatifolia)四种不同植被系统的潜流型湖滨湿地去除污水中营养盐的效果,为抚仙湖湖滨带人工湿地的合理优化选择植物提供一定的依据。结果表明,四种植被系统的潜流湿地对总氮和总磷均有一定的去除效果。但是由于湿地长期运行而疏于管理,植物没有定期收割翻新,四种植物的氮磷去除率差别不太大,去除效果均不太佳。其中,美人蕉对总氮和总磷的去除效果较好,其去除率分别是30.4%,19.13%,其次为香蒲和伞竹,效果较差的是菖蒲。并且实验表明,暴雨对四种植物湿地氮的去除效果有很大的影响。连续几天的暴雨情况下,四种植物系统氮的去除率都很低。     

Impact of photosynthesis and transpiration on nitrogen removal in constructed wetlands

To determine the impact of photosynthesis and transpiration on nitrogen removal in wetlands, an artificial wetland planted with reeds was constructed to treat highly concentrated domestic wastewater. Under different meteorological and hydraulic conditions, the daily changes of photosynthesis and transpiration of reeds, as well as nitrogen removal efficiency were measured. It was found that net photosynthesis rate per unit leaf area was maintained on a high level (average 19.0 μmol CO₂/(m²·s)) from 10:00 to 14:00 in July 2004 and reached a peak of 21.1 μmol CO₂/(m²·s) when Photon Flux Density was high during the day. Meanwhile, TN and NH₄ ⁺-N removal efficiency rose to 79.6% and 89.6%, respectively—the maximum values observed in the test. Correlation coefficient analysis demonstrated a positive correlation among photon flux density, net photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and TN and NH₄ ⁺-N removal efficiency. In contrast, there was a negative correlation between stomatal conductance and TN and NH₄ ⁺-N removal efficiency. Results suggest that the photosynthesis and transpiration of wetland plants have a great impact on nitrogen removal efficiency of wetlands, which can be enhanced by an increase in the photosynthesis and transpiration rate. In addition, the efficiency of water usage by reeds and nitrogen removal efficiency could be affected by the water level in wetlands; a higher level boosts nitrogen removal efficiency.     

湿地碳汇功能探讨:以泥炭地和芦苇湿地为例

大量研究表明湿地是地球表层系统中的重要碳汇,对于吸收大气中的温室气体,减缓全球气候变暖有重要作用.由于近几十年来全球气候变暖和人类活动的影响,湿地碳汇功能不断减弱.文章以泥炭地和芦苇Phragmites australis湿地为例来分析湿地的碳汇功能发现:农业排水、土地利用方式的改变、大气中CO2体积分数升高、全球气候变化等人为和自然因素影响了泥炭地的碳汇功能,泥炭地的碳蓄积能力下降,逐渐由"碳汇"转变为"碳源";尽管芦苇湿地是CH4的重要来源,但其对CO2具有较强的碳汇作用,综合来看芦苇湿地的仍是温室气体的净汇;人工芦苇湿地污水净化系统的温室气体排放量高于天然芦苇湿地.分析表明,研究泥炭地和芦苇湿地在全球气候变化下的响应及反馈机制,确定合理的湿地开发模式将是未来湿地碳汇研究的主要方向.     

Spatio-temporal changes associated with natural and anthropogenic factors in wetlands of Great Rann of Kachchh,India

Studies about wetlands have been identified as a key component of environmental change. The present study assesses the spatio-temporal changes in the wetlands of the Great Rann of Kachchh, in the Kachchh Biosphere Reserve, India, using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Satellite time-series data from Landsat (1977, 1990 and 1999) and IRS P6 (2006, 2008–2012) were used. The Normalised Difference Water Index (NDWI) was derived for each year and the layers were manually edited to obtain a high classification accuracy. The analysis found that the area has undergone considerable change from 1977 to 2011. The natural wetland area of 30.6 km² was converted to salt pans. An area of about 255 km² (41.6 %) of natural grassland was invaded by Prosopis juliflora, which raises further conservation concerns and emphasises the importance of having intervention plans to manage this ecosystem. The highest water spread of 1171 km² was observed in September 2011, followed by 2010, 2009 and 2008 in the same month. The present study is useful in planning the long-term management and conservation of the Great Rann of Kachchh wetland.     

垃圾填埋场新型覆盖层材料厚度对甲烷氧化行为的影响

甲烷是一种长期存在于大气中的重要温室气体,它对温室效应的贡献率是二氧化碳的21倍,生活垃圾填埋场是仅次于水稻田的第二大甲烷人为排放源,减少垃圾填埋场的甲烷气体排放对缓解全球变暖压力具有重要意义.在实验室条件下模拟垃圾填埋场甲烷排放情况,将堆肥+陶粒混合物(体积比1:1)这一新型覆盖层材料按6个厚度(30、40、50、60、70、80 cm)装入有机玻璃柱中研究甲烷氧化与覆盖层深度的关系.研究结果表明:试验94 d甲烷氧化率开始下降,到实验结束前6个柱体中甲烷氧化率相似,维持在24.6%～34.8%之间;甲烷氧化速率由于甲烷通入量不断加大呈现先增加后减小的趋势,最低值为2.45 mol·m~(-2)·d~(-1),最高值为17.82 mol·m~(-2)·d~(-1);在试验第119～121d对各个柱体不同深度的气体成分进行分析.发现甲烷氧化的范围主要集中在基质0cm～30cm深处.     

A multi-objective optimization approach to allocate environmental flows to the artificially restored wetlands of China's Yellow River Delta

In this paper, a multi-objective optimization model has been developed for allocating freshwater to meet the environmental flow requirements of the restored wetlands in the Yellow River Delta, China. The model seeks a rational balance among appropriate water allocation for the wetlands, a healthy ecosystem, and optimum economic returns for the humans that use the wetlands to earn their livelihood, with the degree of ecosystem health represented by the difference between actual and ideal water levels. And then a holistic method has been used for satisfying multiple objectives to avoid the problem of decision-maker subjectivity, and then solved the resulting optimal allocation model for environmental flows of the wetlands using a genetic algorithm. With water from the Yellow River as the source, the model shows how the optimal monthly water release into the restored wetlands can be achieved in dry, average, and wet years. Using the model, 20-56% reductions in water use could be achieved compared with the current pattern of water release, and the optimal water level in each month would coincide better with the ideal value based on an indicator plant community (reeds). The results of the study demonstrate the capability of the multi-objective programming model to optimize ecological water allocation and management for the wetlands of the Yellow River Delta.     

湖滨带复合型人工湿地氮磷的去除效果

湖滨带是连接湖泊水域生态系统与陆地生态系统的一个功能过渡区,是湖泊的最后一道保护屏障。在河流的入湖口建造湖滨湿地,可有效净化入湖径流中携带的部分有机污染物、营养盐等。以云南抚仙湖北岸的湖滨湿地—马料河复合人工湿地为研究对象,探讨了湿地不同功能区去除氮磷的效果。研究表明,沉淀池除氮效果最不明显,在该区内有机氮可能发生矿化作用而转变为氨氮。有植物系统的潜流和表流区除氮效果较为明显,潜流区对氨氮、硝氮和总氮的平均去除率分别达18.0%、19.7%和22.6%;表流区对三者的平均去除率分别达50.4%、35.9%和43.5%。沉淀池对磷有一定的截留作用,且在进水污染物质量浓度较高时表现明显,平均截留率为14.9%。潜流和表流区除磷效果不明显,可能是因为湿地运行了两年多,土壤吸附交换达到平衡,影响了表流区的除磷效果。潜流区除磷效果受降雨影响较大,雨季时,总磷的平均截留率为12.1%,主要是不溶性磷的吸附和沉积;雨季末期,湿地流量较小,水体流动性差,系统内处于厌氧状态,出现磷释放现象。     

中国农田主要温室气体排放特征与控制技术

全球气候变化已成为不争的事实,已经引起了各国科学家和政府的高度重视。人类活动向大气中排放的二氧化碳（CO2）、甲烷（CH4）和氧化亚氮（N2O）等温室气体浓度的增加是导致气候变化的重要原因之一。农田土壤是这三种温室气体的重要来源。文章概述了农田土壤CO2、CH4和N2O三种主要温室气体的排放机制,系统总结了国内对这三种温室气体排放通量的观测研究,提出了相应的减排技术对策,并对目前的研究问题和未来的发展方向作了深入的探讨,以期为控制农田土壤温室气体排放、发展低碳农业提供参考依据。     

施肥对稻田甲烷与氧化亚氮排放的影响

大气温室气体浓度的升高引起太阳辐射加强,导致全球变暖已成为不争的事实。农田是温室气体排放的重要来源之一,采用静态箱-气相色谱法探讨不同氮肥类型与施氮水平对华南稻田甲烷（CH4）与氧化亚氮（N2O）排放的影响。试验共设置5个处理,每处理3次重复,分别（以N计）为U6（90 kg·hm-2）,U10（150 kg·hm-2）,U12（180 kg·hm-2）,SR10（150 kg·hm-2,缓释肥）,CR10（150 kg·hm-2,控释肥）。各处理磷钾肥用量一致,分别为45 kg·hm-2（以P2O5计）和127.5 kg·hm-2（以K2O计）。研究结果表明：稻田CH4与N2O排放量随氮肥用量的增加呈增加趋势。晚稻CH4排放呈单峰型,其峰值出现在水稻移栽后16~23 d,N2O排放并未出现明显的排放峰。CH4累积排放主要发生在返青-分蘖初期和分蘖盛期-幼穗分化期两个时段,而N2O的累积排放主要集中在灌浆-成熟期（U6处理除外）。不同氮肥类型处理CH4季节排放总量与平均排放量表现为：处理SR10〉处理U10〉处理CR10,其中,控释肥处理甲烷排放总量较常规尿素处理减少了11.3%;而N2O季节排放总量与平均排放量表现为：处理CR10〉处理U10〉处理SR10。综上,初步认为氮肥的施用能够促进CH4与N2O的释放,缓释肥处理能有效减少稻田N2O的排放,而控释尿素处理能明显降低稻田CH4气体的排放,且稻田CH4与N2O的排放存在一定的互为消长关系,因此如何平衡稻田甲烷与氧化亚氮释放,使稻田增温潜势最小化是下一步研究的重点和方向。     

A model of macroinvertebrate trophic structure and oxygen demand in freshwater wetlands

We present a model of macroinvertebrate trophic structure, detrital cycling, and dissolved oxygen (DO) dynamics in shallow freshwater wetlands with varying allochthonous subsidies. The model is based on field data of primary and secondary production in municipal wastewater-fed and river-fed constructed wetlands in central Ohio, USA. State variables for primary production include macrophyte, periphyton, and metaphyton biomass. Macroinvertebrate biomass is segregated by functional feeding group and includes collectors, scrapers, shredders, and predators. Model simulations demonstrate the association of water column dissolved oxygen, primary production, allochthonous organic matter, and the structure of the macroinvertebrate community. The quality and quantity of allochthonous carbon is shown to have considerable importance, not only as a food source but also as an oxygen sink. Allochthonous carbon equivalent to 5% of autochthonous production increases the macroinvertebrate standing crop by 4–17%, depending on particle size. A large allochthonous subsidy also reduces the simulated average diel dissolved oxygen and increases the percentage of hypoxia-tolerant macroinvertebrates. Simulations show both the heterotrophic response and the changes in community structure brought about by an allochthonous subsidy.     

The effects of oil sands wetlands on wood frogs (Rana sylvatica)

Extraction of crude oil from oil sand produces solid (sand) and liquid (water with suspended fine particles) tailings materials, called oil sands process-affected materials (OSPM). These waste materials are stored on the mine site due to a “zero discharge” policy and must be reclaimed when operations end. The liquid tailings materials are known to contain naphthenic acids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and have high pH and salinity. One method of reclamation is the “wet landscape” approach, which involves using oil sands tailings materials to form wetlands that would mimic natural wetland ecological function. This study investigated the effects of wetlands formed with oil sands tailings materials on the survival and growth of wood frog (Rana sylvatica) larvae. In spring 2007, in-situ caging studies were completed in 14 wetlands that were of four different classes; young or old, reference or reclaimed. Tadpole survival was different between types of wetlands, with young tailings-affected wetlands (≤7 years old) having 41.5%, 62.6%, and 54.7% higher tadpole mortality than old tailings-affected (>7 years old), young reference, and old reference wetlands, respectively. Since old wetlands created from OSPM showed effects on tadpoles similar to those of reference wetlands, which had markedly lower toxicity than young tailings-affected wetlands, we provide evidence that wetlands, at least 7 years old, can sustain amphibian life.     

Frog occupancy of polluted wetlands in urban landscapes

Urban sprawl and the rising popularity of water-sensitive urban design of urban landscapes has led to a global surge in the number of wetlands constructed to collect and treat stormwater runoff in cities. However, contaminants, such as heavy metals and pesticides, in stormwater adversely affect the survival, growth, and reproduction of animals inhabiting these wetlands. A key question is whether wildlife can identify and avoid highly polluted wetlands. We investigated whether pond-breeding frogs are attempting to breed in wetlands that affect the fitness of their offspring across 67 urban wetlands in Melbourne, Australia. Frog species richness and the concentration of contaminants (heavy metals and pesticides) were not significantly related, even in the most polluted wetlands. The proportion of fringing vegetation at a wetland had the greatest positive influence on the number of frog species present and the probability of occurrence of individual species, indicating that frogs inhabited wetlands with abundant vegetation, regardless of their pollution status. These wetlands contained contaminant levels similar to urban wetlands around the world at levels that reduce larval amphibian survival. These results are, thus, likely generalizable to other areas, suggesting that urban managers could inadvertently be creating ecological traps in countless cities. Wetlands are important tools for the management of urban stormwater runoff, but their construction should not facilitate declines in wetland-dependent urban wildlife.     

Pilot-scale studies of domestic wastewater treatment by typical constructed wetlands and their greenhouse gas emissions

Three typical constructed wetlands (CWs) including Vertical Flow (VF), Free Water Surface (FWS), and Subsurface Flow (SF), and combined VF-SF-FWS constructed wetlands were investigated for the treatment of domestic wastewater with low C/N ratio. The performance of nutrient removal and the characteristics of greenhouse gas emissions, such as CH₄ and N₂O, from these CWs were compared. The results indicated that the four types of CWs had high removal efficiencies for organic matter and suspended solid (SS). The combined wetland also showed a comparatively good performance for nitrogen and phosphorus removal, and the removal efficiencies for total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) were 81.3% and 84.5%, respectively. The combined CWs had a comparative lower global warming potential. The FWS CW had the highest tendency to emit CH₄ and led to a higher global warming potential among the four types of CWs, which was about 586 mg CO₂/m²·h.     

北京市城市湖泊上空甲烷浓度水平和季节特征

通过对北京市市区内大于10 000 m2的10个湖泊上空0.5 m处甲烷浓度的季度观测,研究了北京市城市湖泊上空甲烷的浓度水平,并对其中4个典型的湖泊进行了每月1~2次的观测,分析了城市湖泊上空甲烷浓度的连续变化特征。结果表明湖泊上空甲烷浓度年平均值为2.337±0.431 mL/m3,高于全球均值和其他相关研究人员对北京市上空监测的结果。湖泊上空甲烷浓度季节之间的差异性显著(P<0.01),夏季的甲烷浓度较高(2.758±0.516mL/m3),秋季和春季相对较低。4个典型湖泊上空甲烷浓度连续变化具有一定的规律,大都在7-8月份达到甲烷浓度的高峰期,3月初融冰时都会有小幅增加;位于市中心的什刹海上空甲烷浓度相对较高。这表明了北京市内湖泊是甲烷排放的一个重要源头,同时也反映了北京作为一特大城市,其湖泊上空甲烷浓度受人类活动影响的特征。