In situ burning of emulsions R&D in Norway

SINTEF Applied Chemistry has been working in the field of in situ burning since 1988, beginning with the first open water testing of the 3M fire proof boom which took place on Spitsbergen. In recent years, the focus of SINTEF's research activities in this area has been on the burning of emulsions. An experimental programme was initiated by NOFO in 1990 to study the in situ burning of water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions, as part of a wider NOFO programme ‘Oil spill contingency in Northern and Arctic waters’ (ONA). The research conducted under this programme has addressed many areas of in situ burning including:

• •• study of processes governing burning emulsions
• •• development of ignition techniques for emulsions
• •• effect of environmental conditions on burning
• •• burning crude oil and emulsions in broken ice
• •• uncontained burning of crude oil and emulsions.

     

Physical Properties and Processes that Influence the Clean Up of Oil Spills in the Marine Environment

Based on a study carried out by the Versuchsanstalt für Wasserbau und Schiffbau, Berlin – VWS for the German Environmental Agency, this report represents an attempt to summarize the knowledge in the Federal Republic of Germany and world-wide concerning the control of hazards from discharged oil and other liquid chemicals after casualties on and in the hydrosphere. Because of technical reasons, control measures can be classified into passive and active types; this classification has been adopted for this report in the following order:

• •Part 1: Passive mechanisms: Booms and barriers.
• •Part 2: Active mechanisms: Recovery devices.
• •Part 3: Other means: Dispersion.
• •Part 4: Control of sinking and/or sunken chemicals.

Part 1 not only evaluates the behaviour of liquid chemicals on water, but also considers the physical fundamentals underlying the functioning of booms and barriers. Some widely used definitions and relations (such as the relationship between the blocking of liquid chemicals and boom draught or efficiency) will be refined. The discussion of the physical fundamentals is presented in the broadest sense and concludes with practical advice on the deployment of booms.Part 2 attempts to standardize recovery devices based on the application of fundamental physical principles. Four classes were identified and have been used to classify pick-up devices. Once again basic physical fundamentals have been presented in a way that facilitates deductions on application possibilities. The evaluation showed that practically only those methods that utilize adhesion and “hole-in-the-water” principles can be operated with sufficient efficiency which, in turn, reflects the world-wide state-of-the-art in equipment development. Special attention has been paid to hybrid systems which utilize both passive and active methodologies.In Part 3, the basics of dispersion of oil and other floating liquid chemicals are considered. It can be shown that mechanical dispersion has the same effect as its chemical counterpart. This relationship recognizes the necessity for applying a mechanical agitator for using dispersants effectively. This strategy calls into question the efficiency of chemical dispersion.Part 4 deals with the behaviour and control options for sinking and/or sunken liquid chemicals. Contrary to the general opinion that liquid chemicals which have disappeared from the surface cannot be controlled, it has been found that, under certain conditions, even these chemicals can be “herded” and recovered. It will be shown that practically the same techniques can be applied to submerged chemicals as has been used for the recovery of floating hazardous substances.     

Heat and chemical treatment of mechanically recovered w/o emulsions

Nearly all crude oils and some heavier refined products form stable water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions when spilled and weathered at sea. Breaking these emulsions and discarding the separated water allow more oil to be recovered and stored by OSRVs (Oil Spill Recovery Vessels) and make the handling of oily waste easier due to viscosity reduction. This study was conducted to determine whether a combination of heat and emulsion breaker is more effective than either technique used alone. The results will be used to prepare guidelines for treatment of w/o emulsions and planning of large-scale tests.A bench-scale laboratory study was carried out using emulsions prepared from different crude oil residues (BCF-17, Alaskan North Slope and Bonny Light) and a Bunker C fuel oil/gas oil blend (IF-80). Tubes containing w/o emulsions, with or without emulsion breaker added, were partially submerged in a water bath at different temperatures to simulate the heating system of the recovered oil tanks onboard the OSRVs. The effectiveness of the emulsion breaking was measured by recording settled water over a 24 h period. The results showed that:

• •• The stability of a w/o emulsion and its response to heat and emulsion breaker is highly dependent on different characteristics of the oil from which it is formed.
• •• Stable w/o emulsions that can be slowly broken by heat alone were, in general, broken much more rapidly if emulsion breaker was added in addition to heat.
• •• The w/o emulsions formed from relatively paraffinic crude oil (e.g. ANS) exhibit faster breaking rates than w/o emulsions formed from crude oils with high asphaltene content, such as BCF-17.
• •• All w/o emulsions formed from the crude oil residues could be broken by the application of moderate amounts of heat. W/o emulsions produced from Bunker C/Diesel oil blend were not broken at all by relatively high heat inputs (up to 100°C) and required both the addition of heat and emulsion breaker to obtain partially breaking.

     

Application of Ultraviolet Fluorescence Spectroscopy to Monitor Oil–Mineral Aggregate Formation

At an excitation wavelength of 320 nm, the ultraviolet fluorescence (UVF) spectra emitted by reference oils dispersed in seawater with mineral fines yielded two important results:

• (1)Resuspended negatively-buoyant oil–mineral aggregates (OMAs) exhibited maximum fluorescence at an emission wavelength of 450 nm and,
• (2)the hydrocarbons dispersed and/or dissolved in the seawater that remained after the aggregates had settled out exhibited maximum fluorescence at 355 nm.

Data from UVF analysis (450 nm emission) and microscopical observations of seven reference oils suggest that higher-viscosity oils are less likely to form aggregates with mineral fines. This decline in OMA formation with increased oil viscosity could be predicted from a decrease in the ratio of emission at 450–355 nm. The data suggest that direct UVF spectroscopy of dispersed/dissolved oil and OMAs in seawater can be used to predict and verify the extent of OMA formation.     

Cleanup Options for Navajo Abandoned Uranium Mines

This article summarizes the current status of known contamination arising from abandoned uranium mines (AUMs) within the Navajo Nation and examines the options for addressing the elevated risks to health that AUM waste poses to the people of the Navajo Nation. More specifically, this article provides the following:

1. An overview of past uranium mining conducted on the Navajo Nation, the current status of AUM waste within the Navajo Nation, and the human health risks associated with uranium exposure.
2. A discussion of Navajo Fundamental Law, the Diné (the Navajo People) Uranium Remediation Advisory Commission, and the Navajo Nation Department of Justice's position regarding institutional controls and cleanup of AUMs.
3. A summary of cleanup actions taken to date to address AUM waste and the lessons learned from such actions.
4. Options for cleanup of AUM waste consistent with Diné Fundamental Law, the Diné Natural Resources Protection Act of 2005, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA).

The information summarized in this article was previously presented as an “Initial White Paper on Cleanup Options for Navajo Abandoned Uranium Mines,” prepared with participation from multiple stakeholders including the Navajo Nation Environmental Protection Agency (NNEPA), the Navajo Nation Department of Justice (NNDOJ), and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). ©2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The Social and Political Meaning of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

In this paper we argue that the Exxon Valdez oil spill gained so much attention because of its setting in Alaska. Alaska symbolizes for many Americans the wilderness or frontier that has long been part of American thought. At the same time, American national development has largely depended on the discovery and use of the nation’s abundant natural resources. The setting of the Valdez spill in the seemingly pristine waters of Prince William Sound brought the tension between our national identification with wilderness and our national need for further natural resource exploitation into sharp focus. In the aftermath of the spill, a legislative deadlock was passed and the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 was passed. The Valdez accident had longer-term consequences as well, most prominent of which is related to the ongoing debate over whether to open up the coastal plain in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to further development.     

Biodegradation of Poly-ε-caprolactones and Poly-<Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">l</Emphasis>-lactides by Fungi

This work assessed biodegradation, by Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium and Parengyodontium fungi, of four samples of poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL), three samples of poly-l-lactide (PLA) and one sample of poly-d,l-lactide (DL-PLA) produced by ring-opening polymerization initiated by aluminium complexes of corresponding lactones. Mesophilic fungal strains actively biodegrading PCL (F. solani) and PLA (Parengyodontium album and A. calidoustus) were selected. The rate of degradation by the selected fungi was found to depend on the physicochemical and mechanical properties of the polymers (molecular weight, polydispersity, crystallinity). The most degradable poly-ε-caprolactone sample was shown to have the lowest molecular weight; the most biodegradable polylactide DL-PLA had the lowest crystallinity. Mass spectral analysis of biodegraded polymer residues showed PCL to be degraded more intensively than PLA. It is established that in the case of Parengyodontium album the colonization of the films of polypropylene composites with DL-PLA is observed, which will undoubtedly contribute to their further destruction under the influence of abiotic factors in the environment.     

Comparison of three ornamental plants for phytoextraction potential of chromium removal from tannery sludge

Based on pre-experimentation, three ornamental plants, Mirabilis jalapa, Impatiens Balsamin (I. Balsamin) and Tagetes erecta L., were selected as target plants to study the phytoextraction of chromium (Cr) in tannery sludge irrigated with four treatments according to Cr concentration gradient [Control (CK); 20.50 × 10³ mg kg^?1 (T1); 51.25 × 10³ mg kg^?1 (T2); 102.50 × 10³ mg kg^?1 (T3)]. Results of pot experiments showed that the biomass of Mirabilis jalapa and Tagetes erecta L. had no significant differences among the four treatments, while I. Balsamin showed a decline trend in the biomass with the increase of Cr concentration, probably due to some extent to the poisoning effect of Cr under treatment T2 or T3. Mirabilis jalapa accumulated Cr concentration, with 408.97, 124.97, 630.16 and 57.30 mg kg^?1 in its roots, stems, leaves and inflorescence, respectively. The translocation factor and the bioaccumulation coefficient of Mirabilis jalapa are each greater than 1, indicating that Mirabilis jalapa has the strong ability to tolerate and enrich Cr by biological processes. Comparing accumulation properties of the three ornamental plants, in the amount and allocation, Mirabilis jalapa showed the highest phytoextraction efficiency and could grow well at the high Cr concentration. Our experiments suggest that Mirabilis jalapa is the expected flower species for Cr removal from tannery sludge.     

Selective Lead(II) Adsorption and Flocculation Characteristics of the Grafted Sodium Alginate: A Comparative Study

Synthesis of sodium alginate-g-poly(acrylamide-co-N-methylacrylamide) [S-III], sodium alginate-g-poly(N-methylacrylamide-co-N,N-dimethylacrylamide) [S-II], sodium alginate-g-poly(acrylamide-co-N,N-dimethylacrylamide) [S-I]. Sodium alginate-g-poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide) [SAG-g-PDMA] and sodium alginate-g-poly(acrylamide) [SAG-g-PAM] were prepared by solution polymerization technique using potassium peroxydisulfate as the initiator at 70?°C in water medium. The graft copolymers were characterized by FTIR and NMR (¹H and ¹³C) spectroscopy, SEM and XRD studies. All the five graft copolymers were used to remove Pb(II) ions from the aqueous solution and also in flocculation studies of kaolin clay (1.0 wt%), silica (1.0 wt%) and iron ore slime (0.25 wt%) suspensions. A comparative studies of all the five graft copolymers were also made in both the two cases. The Pb(II) ion removal capacity of all the graft copolymers follows the order S-III?>?SAG-g-PAM?>?S-II?>?SAG-g-PDMA?>?S-I. But the flocculation performance of the graft copolymers follows the order S-II?>?S-I?>?S-III?>?SAG-g-PDMA?>?SAG-g-PAM. S-III was also used for the competitive metal ion removal with Hg(II), Cd(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II). Pb(II) adsorption of S-III (the best Pb(II) ion adsorber) follows pseudo second order rate equation and Langmuir adsorption isotherm.     

An approach to evaluate the application of the vulnerability index for oil spills in tropical Red Sea environments

The Egyptian national marine oil pollution contingency plan was urgently initiated after the Nabila oil spill in 1982, to provide an estimate of its environmental effects on the Egyptian Red Sea coastal areas and to determine geomorphological features and cuastal processes, together with physical, chemical and biological baseline data for this tropical environment.The ‘Vulnerability Index’ (VI) was applied to evaluate and calibrate the effect of the Nabila oil spill on the Egyptian Red Sea Coastal area. A detailed in situ coastal survey was conducted during two visits in November 1982 and May 1983 to 80 shore sites from Suez to Ras Banas to monitor the oil pollution and to apply the ‘Vulnerability Index’. A comparative assessment of the index over time by comparing it with a quick ground inspection in November 1993 to some sites to evaluate the applicability of this index for oil spills in such environments. In addition, the physical effects of fresh and weathered crude oil and/with dispersant on water filtration by different beaches were preliminary studied.The geomorphological/Vulnerability Index results show that most of the Egyptian Red Sea coastal environments have medium to high vulnerability to immediate and medium term oil spill damage. The oil pollution spread estimated to be 250 km south of the oil spill and about 200 km north of it. The quantity of oil along the shoreline was reduced by about 60% due to natural and authorities clean up. The third survey after 11 years showed that the VI could be used as a predictive tool for assessment of oil spill effects on such tropical environments.     

Water Absorption Kinetics and Hygrothermal Aging of Poly(lactic acid) Containing Halloysite Nanoclay and Maleated Rubber

Poly(lactic acid)/halloysite nanoclay composites (PLA/HNC) containing maleic anhydride grafted styrene-ethylene/butylene-styrene (SEBS-g-MAH) were produced using melt compounding followed by compression molding. The effects of hygrothermal aging on the thermal properties and functional groups changes of the HNC reinforced PLA (with and without SEBS-g-MAH) at three different temperatures (i.e., 30, 40 and 50 °C) were analyzed using differential scanning calorimetry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy techniques. The diffusion coefficient (D) of PLA was decreased by the incorporation of HNC and SEBS-g-MAH. The activation energy of water diffusion (E _a ) of PLA/HNC/SEBS-g-MAH nanocomposites was higher than that of pure PLA. The glass transition temperature (T _g ), cold-crystallization temperature (T _cc ) and melting temperature (T _m ) of the PLA sample were shifted to lower temperature and the effect was more pronounced at 50 °C. The carbonyl index values of all PLA samples increased after immersed in 40 and 50 °C, which is due to the formation of higher amount of carboxyl groups during the hydrolysis process.     

Oil Spill Contingency and Response (OSCAR) Analysis in Support of Environmental Impact Assessment Offshore Namibia

The work reported here encompasses analyses of specific potential spill scenarios for oil exploration activity planned offshore of Namibia. The analyses are carried out with the SINTEF Oil Spill Contingency and Response (OSCAR) 3-dimensional model system. A spill scenario using 150 m³ of marine diesel demonstrates the rapidity with which such a spill will dissipate naturally, even in light winds. Vertical and horizontal mixing bring subsurface hydrocarbon concentrations to background levels within a few days. A hypothetical 10 day blowout scenario releasing 11,000 bbl per day of light crude oil is investigated in terms of the potential for delivering oil to selected bird and marine mammal areas along the Namibian coast. Worst case scenarios are selected to investigate the potential mitigating effects of planned oil spill response actions. Mechanical recovery significantly reduces, and in some cases eliminates, potential environmental consequences of these worst case scenarios. Dispersant application from fixed wing aircraft further reduces the potential surface effects. The analysis supplies an objective basis for net environmental analysis of the planned response strategies.     

RADARSAT SAR for oil spill response

RADARSAT synthetic aperture radar imagery has been successfully classified to delineate oil slicks on water using training areas for various degrees of oil coverage located within each image. Three and four class schemes have been tested with imagery from the Nakhodka and Milford Haven spills. An interactive graphical editor has been developed using the classified images to re-initialize the SPILLSIM oil spill model during a simulation.     

Introduction/Overview to In Situ Burning of Oil Spills

In situ burning is an oil spill response technique or tool that involves the controlled ignition and burning of the oil at or near the spill site on the surface of the water or in a marsh (see Lindau et al., this volume). Although controversial, burning has been shown on several recent occasions to be an appropriate oil spill countermeasure. When used early in a spill before the oil weathers and releases its volatile components, burning can remove oil from the waters surface very efficiently and at very high rates. Removal efficiencies for thick slicks can easily exceed 95% (Advanced In Situ Burn Course, Spiltec, Woodinville, WA, 1997). In situ burning offers a logistically simple, rapid, inexpensive and if controlled a relatively safe means for reducing the environmental impacts of an oil spill. Because burning rapidly changes large quantities of oil into its primary combustion products (water and carbon dioxide), the need for collection, storage, transport and disposal of recovered material is greatly reduced. The use of towed fire containment boom to capture, thicken and isolate a portion of a spill, followed by ignition, is far less complex than the operations involved in mechanical recovery, transfer, storage, treatment and disposal (The Science, Technology, and Effects of Controlled Burning of Oil Spills at Sea, Marine Spill Response Corporation, Washington, DC, 1994).However, there is a limited window-of-opportunity (or time period of effectiveness) to conduct successful burn operations. The type of oil spilled, prevailing meteorological and oceanographic (environmental) conditions and the time it takes for the oil to emulsify define the window (see Buist, this volume and Nordvik et al., this volume). Once spilled, oil begins to form a stable emulsion: when the water content exceeds 25% most slicks are unignitable. In situ burning is being viewed with renewed interest as a response tool in high latitude waters where other techniques may not be possible or advisable due to the physical environment (extreme low temperatures, ice-infested waters), or the remoteness of the impacted area. Additionally, the magnitude of the spill may quickly overwhelm the deployed equipment necessitating the consideration of other techniques in the overall response strategy (The Science, Technology, and Effects of Controlled Burning of Oil Spills at Sea, Marine Spill Response Corporation, Washington, DC, 1994; Proceedings of the In Situ Burning of Oil Spills Workshop. NIST. SP934. MMS. 1998, p. 31; Basics of Oil Spill Cleanup, Lewis Publishers, Washington, DC, 2001, p. 233). This paper brings together the current knowledge on in situ burning and is an effort to gain regulatory acceptance for this promising oil spill response tool.     

Comparative Response of Indigenously Developed Bacterial Consortia on Progressive Degradation of Polyhydroxybutyrate Film Composites

The global demand of bioplastics has lead to an exponential increase in their production commercially. Hence, biodegradable nature needs to be evaluated in various ecosystems viz. air, water, soil and other environmental conditions to avoid the polymeric waste accumulation in the nature. In this paper, we investigated the progressive response of two indigenously developed bacterial consortia, i.e., consortium-I (C-I: Pseudomonas sp. strain Rb10, Pseudomonas sp. strain Rb11 and Bacillus sp. strain Rb18), and consortium-II (C-II: Lysinibacillus sp. strain Rb1, Pseudomonas sp. strain Rb13 and Pseudomonas sp. strain Rb19), against biodegradation behavior of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) film composites, under natural soil ecosystem (in net house). The biodegraded films recovered after 6 and 9 months of incubation were analyzed through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy to determine the variations in chemical and morphological parameters (before and after incubation). Noticeable changes in the bond intensity, surface morphology and conductivity were found when PHB composites were treated with C-II. These changes were drastic in case of blends in comparison to copolymer. The potential isolates not only survived, but, also, there was a significant increase in bacterial diversity during whole period of incubation. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first report which described the biodegradation potential of Lysinibacillus sp. as a part of C-II with Pseudomonas sp. against PHB film composites.     

Accelerated Stability Testing of a Polyherbal Transdermal Patches Using Polyvinyl Alcohol and Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose as a Controlling Polymer Layer

The present work was to evaluate the stability potential of (E)-4-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)but-3-en-l-ol (Compound D) in polyherbal transdermal patches. The polyherbal formulation composed of the rhizomes of Zingiber cassumunar and Curcuma longa, leaves and stems of Cymbopogon citratus, rind and leaves of Citrus hystrix fruit, and leaves of Acacia rugata and Tamarindus indica. Polyvinyl alcohol and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose were used as a matrix film, and glycerine was used as a plasticizer. Stability testing was established for 6 months under accelerated conditions as according to International Conference on Harmonisation guidelines. Mechanical properties, moisture uptake, swelling ratio, and in vitro studies were evaluated. New Zealand white rabbits were used as the animal model. Results obtained after 6 months showed that the polyherbal transdermal patches were stable, with a good mechanical properties and hydrophilicity. In vitro study kinetics for active Compound D fitted to the Higuchi model for both release and skin permeation. The transdermal patch containing polyherbal formulation was safe to apply on the skin without irritation. Thus, transdermal patches containing this polyherbal formulation had good stability potential, with no irritation on application.     

Remediation techniques for mitigating vapor intrusion from sewer systems to indoor air

Investigations at former dry cleaning sites in Denmark show that sewer systems often are a major vapor intrusion pathway for chlorinated solvents to indoor air. In more than 20 percent of the contaminated drycleaner sites in Central Denmark Region, sewer systems were determined to be a major vapor intrusion pathway. Sewer systems can be a major intrusion pathway if contaminated groundwater intrudes into the sewer and contamination is transported within the sewer pipe by water flow in either free phase or dissolved states. Additionally, the contamination can volatilize from the water phase or soil gas can intrude the sewer system directly. In the sewer, the gas phase can migrate in any direction by convective transport or diffusion. Indications of the sewer as a major intrusion pathway are:

• higher concentrations in the upper floors in buildings,
• higher concentrations in indoor air than expected from soil gas measurements,
• higher concentrations in bathrooms/kitchen than in living rooms,
• chlorinated solvents in the sewer system, and
• a pressure gradient from the sewer system to indoor air.

Measurements to detect whether or not the sewer system is an intrusion pathway are simple. In Central Denmark Region, the concentrations of contaminants are routinely measured in the indoor air at all floors, the outdoor air, behind the water traps in the building, and in the manholes close to the building. The indoor and outdoor air concentration, as well as concentrations in manholes, are measured by passive sampling on sorbent samplers over a 14‐day period, and the measurements inside the sewer system are carried out by active sampling using carbon tubes (sorbent samplers). Furthermore, the pressure gradient over the building slab and between the indoor air and the sewer system are also measured. A simple test is depressurization of the sewer system. Using this technique, the pressure gradient between the sewer system and the indoor air is altered toward the sewer system—the contamination cannot enter the indoor air through the sewer system. If the sewer system is a major intrusion pathway, the effect of the test can be observed immediately in the indoor air. Remediation of a sewer transported contamination can be:

• prevention of the contaminants from intruding into the sewer system or
• prevention of the contaminated gas in the sewer system from intruding into the indoor air.

Remediation techniques include the following:

• lining of the sewer piping to prevent the contamination from intruding into the sewer;
• sealing the sewer system in the building to prevent the contamination from the sewer system to intrude the indoor air;
• venting of manholes; and
• depressurizing the sewer system.