Climate change policy and water resources in the EU and Spain. A closer look into the Water Framework Directive

Climate change effects are becoming evident worldwide, with serious regional and local impacts. The European Union (EU) has launched and developed initiatives and policies that scratch the surface of water resources impacts. This article presents an introduction of the existing environmental policy and more concisely in the areas of climate change and the interactions with water resources. It also addresses main management tools, and plans linked to policies, recent updates on the Science–Policy Interface, highlighting major results from research and development projects. Establishing appropriate policies to tackle climate change impacts on water is essential given the cross-sectorial and flowing nature and the importance of water in all environmental, social and economic sectors. There are still some pending reviews and updates in the current EU policy and its implementation, as well as at the national level in Spain. This article identifies existing gaps, and provides recommendations on how and where reforms could take place and be applied by decision makers in the water policy sector.     

Network management and environmental effectiveness: the management of end-of-life vehicles in the United Kingdom and in Sweden

The principle of extended producer responsibility (EPR) has been a policy paradigm behind the development of waste policies in the European Union including the End-of-Life Vehicle (ELV) Directive (2000/53/EC). This study compares and explains the environmental effectiveness of the ELV programmes in the United Kingdom and in Sweden between 1990 and 2005, using a framework that integrates the Dutch approach to policy network analysis (PNA) with a theory-based evaluation (TBE). It finds that: (1) the perception of the producers towards EPR can be influenced largely by their social interaction with other actors, (2) the announcement of policies, and (3) the cohesion of policy instruments are key factors affecting the effectiveness of the programmes. As the latter two depend on the determination and comprehension of national governments, the transposition of the EU EPR Directives might not automatically lead to effective implementation and intended outcomes unless the Member States adhere to the principle and the development of its intervention theory.     

2050年中国能源消费结构的系统动力学模拟——基于重点行业的转型情景

面向2050年世界能源发展形势与中国发展实际,推进能源转型与保障油气供给是关乎国家发展和能源安全的重大前瞻性问题。考虑能源转型这一关键前提,基于重点行业部门的政策情景模拟了中国能源消费的总量与结构变化情况,并分析了中国油气消费需求及其对外依存情况。结果显示：（1）若实行积极的部门能源转型政策,中国的一次能源消费总量将在较大幅度上低于参照情景,并有望在2040年达到峰值,其峰值在5755~7000 mtce之间。具体来看,煤炭消费可在2030年前达峰,石油消费在两种转型情景下均将在2040年达到峰值,而天然气仅在加速转型情景下可于2035年实现消费达峰。（2）从推进能源结构转型角度看,在转型情景下中国2050年煤炭消费量占能源消费总量的比例为21%,在加速转型情景下到2050年煤炭占能源消费总量的比例将不足10%;无论是在转型情景下还是加速转型情景下,到2050年油气消费占中国能源消费总量的30%;若推行更加积极的转型政策,在加速转型情景下中国到 2050年非化石能源消费占比将超越化石能源。（3）高需求低产出将导致中国油气对外依存度在中长期内处于较高水平,因而,在2050年前保障国家能源安全仍不可忽视油气供给稳定性。研究可为中国能源安全战略与能源政策制定提供科学依据。     

Moving towards ambitious climate policies: Monetised health benefits from improved air quality could offset mitigation costs in Europe

Air quality and related health effects are not only affected by policies directly addressed at air pollution but also by other environmental strategies such as climate mitigation. This study addresses how different climate policy pathways indirectly bear upon air pollution in terms of improved human health in Europe. To this end, we put in perspective mitigation costs and monetised health benefits of reducing PM_2.5 (particles less than 2.5 μm in diameter) and ozone concentrations.Air quality in Europe and related health impacts were assessed using a comprehensive modelling chain, based on global and regional climate and chemistry-transport models together with a health impact assessment tool. This allows capturing both the impact of climate policy on emissions of air pollutants and the geophysical impact of climate change on air quality.Results are presented for projections at the 2050 horizon, for a set of consistent air pollution and climate policy scenarios, combined with population data from the UN's World Population Prospects, and are expressed in terms of morbidity and mortality impacts of PM_2.5 and ozone pollution and their monetised damage equivalent.The analysis shows that enforcement of current European air quality policies would effectively reduce health impacts from PM_2.5 in Europe even in the absence of climate policies (life years lost from the exposure to PM_2.5 decrease by 78% between 2005 and 2050 in the reference scenario), while impacts for ozone depend on the ambition level of international climate policies. A move towards stringent climate policies on a global scale, in addition to limiting global warming, creates co-benefits in terms of reduced health impacts (68% decrease in life years lost from the exposure to PM_2.5 and 85% decrease in premature deaths from ozone in 2050 in the mitigation scenario relative to the reference scenario) and air pollution cost savings (77%) in Europe. These co-benefits are found to offset at least 85% of the additional cost of climate policy in this region.     

Top-down and Europe-wide versus bottom-up and intra-regional identification of key issues for sustainability impact assessment

Sustainability impact assessment tools aim at optimising the development of policy measures. Here, we present an approach to designing policies for multifunctional land use with application to Europe and its regions. After the 35 environmental, social and economic impact issues of the European Impact Assessment Guidelines were reviewed on the basis of spatiotemporal indicators at both the top-down Europe-wide and bottom-up intra-regional resolution level, cluster analysis identified classes with specific sustainability characteristics and thus regions most likely facing similar sustainability problems. Sensitive region types such as post-industrial zones, mountains, coasts and islands were analysed separately. The results of the cluster analysis were tested against evidence-based information such as UNEP priorities and regional stakeholder evidence. Stakeholder evidence was specifically explored for the land use policy ‘bioenergy promotion’ in Lusatia, Germany. We concluded that these top-down and bottom-up spatiotemporal data classifications with cluster analysis represent useful ex-ante impact assessment tools and need to be supplemented by participatory assessments. This procedure with top-down and bottom-up data analysis, and also participatory evidence, provide a valuable three-step sustainability impact assessment approach in policy making.     

An integration of net imported emissions into climate change targets

There is an international divide between net emissions importers and net emissions exporters, with industrialised nations mainly falling into the former and emerging economies the latter. Integrating emissions transfers into climate policy, so as not to disadvantage export-intensive countries, has been suggested to increase participation in international emissions reduction commitments. Consumption-based scenarios are presented for the UK identifying the geographic and sectorial source of emissions to meet future consumer demands given the current international climate policy landscape. The analysis is applied to the UK yet the discussion is applicable to international climate policy; assigning national responsibility for global emissions reductions; and extending the mitigation potential for net importing countries. Two trajectories for UK consumption emissions are calculated in which (1) international reduction targets are consistent with those pledged today equating to four degrees of temperature rise and (2) international reduction targets achieve a two degree future. By 2050 it is estimated that UK consumption emissions are 40–260% greater than UK territorial emissions depending on the strength of global reduction measures, and assuming the UK meets its 80% reduction in 1990 emissions by 2050 target. Cumulative emissions are presented alongside emissions trajectories, recognising that temperature rise is directly related to every tonne of carbon emitted. Whilst this paper argues that the current UK emissions targets underestimate the UK's contribution to global mitigation for two degrees, it shows how expanding the focus of policy towards consumption introduces new opportunities for reduction strategies at scale. The paper advocates the implementation of consumption-based emissions accounting which reveals underexploited policy interventions and increases the potential to break down barriers that exist between industrialised and emerging economies in international climate policy.     

Is the EU WFD suitable to support IWRM planning in non-European countries? Lessons learnt from the introduction of IWRM and River Basin Management in Mongolia

The Water Framework Directive (EU WFD, 2000/60EC, European Commission, 2000) is a comprehensive tool for water management taking Europe’s diverse national and local policy contexts into account. This has positioned the EU WFD as a potential tool to enhance the implementation of the globally-promoted integrated water resources management concept (IWRM) in developing and transition countries that to date lack comparable regulations. Using the case of Mongolia, a country that has shown interest in using aspects of the EU WFD for implementing its IWRM concept, we will discuss the extent to which the EU WFD also provides a framework for IWRM outside Europe. We find that the EU WFD may provide guidance for the implementation of ecosystem-based River Basin Management (RBM) within an existing national IWRM concept, in terms of public participation and in terms of economic analysis. However, the application of concepts EU WFD is easier if strong political will, good monitoring capacities and a legislative backbone covering key IWRM principles and the capacity for enforcement are in place. Also, the EU-WFD does not provide guidance in terms of water-related issues that are e.g. addressing gender, poverty and capacity development. Thus, the EU WFD cannot serve as a blueprint, as it requires adaptation to the different socio-economic, cultural and political contexts of the implementing country and it does not inform all aspects of IWRM.     

Vehicular volatile organic compounds losses due to refueling and diurnal process in China: 2010–2050

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are crucial to control air pollution in major Chinese cities since VOCs are the dominant factor influencing ambient ozone level, and also an important precursor of secondary organic aerosols. Vehicular evaporative emissions have become a major and growing source of VOC emissions in China. This study consists of lab tests, technology evaluation, emissions modeling, policy projections and cost-benefit analysis to draw a roadmap for China for controlling vehicular evaporative emissions. The analysis suggests that evaporative VOC emissions from China's light-duty gasoline vehicles were approximately 185,000 ton in 2010 and would peak at 1,200,000 ton in 2040 without control. The current control strategy implemented in China, as shown in business as usual (BAU) scenario, will barely reduce the long-term growth in emissions. Even if Stage II gasoline station vapor control policies were extended national wide (BAU + extended Stage II), there would still be over 400,000 ton fuel loss in 2050. In contrast, the implementation of on-board refueling vapor recovery (ORVR) on new cars could reduce 97.5% of evaporative VOCs by 2050 (BAU + ORVR/BAU + delayed ORVR). According to the results, a combined Stage II and ORVR program is a comprehensive solution that provides both short-term and long-term benefits. The net cost to achieve the optimal total evaporative VOC control is approximately 62 billion CNY in 2025 and 149 billion CNY in 2050.     

Greenhouse gas scenarios for Austria: a comparison of different approaches to emission trends

In the present paper, national and externally organized projections of greenhouse gas emissions for Austria were compared to gain insight on the underlying scenario data assumptions. National greenhouse gas emission trends extend until 2030, an assessment of European Union (EU) countries to 2050. In addition, data for 2000–2100 was extracted from the global emission database described by the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP). By identifying trends in these projections, it was possible to produce (a) a long-term assessment of national scenarios until 2100, (b) an assessment of the ambition level toward national climate strategies, and (c) a standardized method to compare trends across countries. By extracting RCP data, Austrian’s methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide emissions up to 2100 could be projected for all sources as well as specific sectors. With respect to the RCP scenario emission data, national projections did not seem to employ the mitigation potentials available for the most stringent RCP scenario, RCP2.6. Comparing projections that supported the EU Climate Strategy 2030 with national projections revealed similar trends. Because RCP2.6 is the only scenario consistent with a 2 °C global warming target, and it is much more ambitious than any of the national or European projections, further measures will be required if Austria is to adequately contribute to this widely accepted policy goal.     

Modelling scenarios towards a sustainable use of natural resources in Europe

Issues related to the unsustainable use of natural resources are currently high on the policy agenda both in Europe and in other world regions. A large number of studies assessed past developments of material use and resource productivities. However, little effort has so far been devoted to forecasting future patterns of natural resource use and to provide ex-ante assessments of environmental and economic effects of different resource policies. This paper presents results from the international research project “MOSUS” (Modelling opportunities and limits for restructuring Europe towards sustainability), which was designed to fill some of these research gaps. In this project, a global economy–energy model system was extended by a worldwide database on material inputs, in order to run three scenarios for European development up to the year 2020: a baseline scenario without additional policy intervention and two so-called “sustainability scenarios”, simulating the implementation of six packages of policy measures geared towards decoupling economic activity from material and energy throughput. These measures included, amongst others, taxes on CO₂ emissions and transport, measures to increase metal recycling rates, and a consulting programme to raise material productivity of industrial production. This paper presents the evaluation of the three scenarios with regard to the extraction of natural resources on the European and global level. In the baseline scenario, used domestic extraction within the EU remains roughly constant until 2020, while unused domestic extraction decreases (particularly overburden from mining activities). The stabilisation of domestic extraction, however, is accompanied by growing imports of material intensive products. This indicates that the material requirements of the European economy will increasingly be met through imports from other world regions, causing shifts of environmental pressures related to material extraction and processing away from Europe towards resource-rich countries. The implementation of the six sustainability policy measures applied in the sustainability scenarios results in a slight absolute reduction of domestic extraction in all European countries and significantly increased resource productivities. The results suggest that policy instruments aimed at raising eco-efficiency on the micro level can be conducive to economic growth. To limit rebound effects on the macro level, these instruments must, however, be accompanied by other policies influencing the prices of energy and materials. With regard to global resource use trends, the baseline scenario forecasts a significant growth of resource extraction, particularly in developing countries, reflecting the growing demand for natural resources of emerging economies such as China and India.     

Assessment of renewable energy potential and policy in Turkey – Toward the acquisition period in European Union

This paper aims to assess the renewable energy capacity of Turkey in order to consider main priorities in the energy policy of Turkey. In this paper, renewable energy potential and regulatory conditions are discussed in Turkey in comparison with European Union. The results of the study implemented within the framework of EnviroGRIDS project indicated a promising yet very susceptible future for the implementation of renewable energy power plants in Turkey. The forecasts have shown that the solar power potential utilization is becoming more significant after 2020. The projections for 2050 indicate that electricity consumption from small and medium renewable energy sources including solar and wind will constitute 15% of the total, whereas the solar thermal will constitute around 16%. Geothermal and other renewables will remain around 3%. According to the high demand scenario, in 2050 the share of hydropower in overall electricity generation will be 12%, followed by solar power at 7% and wind power at 3%. Additionally, renewable energy policy and regulations in Turkey and in EU are overviewed in this study. On the contrary to EU, the constant feed-in tariff amount does not consider capital investments of specific energy sources in Turkey that brings disadvantage to the implementation. However, new regulations published and currently applied should be accepted as milestones in acquisition period of Turkey in EU.     

中欧节能减排政策比较

欧盟国家开展节能减排较早,并积累了丰富的经验。比较了在金融危机影响下欧盟与中国在节能减排法律框架、管理方式、经济政策、产业政策和技术创新方面的异同,提出中国应该借鉴欧盟国家的先进经验,完善现有的节能减排政策体系,实现经济和社会的可持续发展。     

Co-benefits of post-2012 global climate mitigation policies

This paper provides an analysis of co-benefits for traditional air pollutants made possible through global climate policies using the Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies (GAINS) model in the time horizon up to 2050. The impact analysis is based on projections of energy consumption provided by the Prospective Outlook for the Long term Energy System (POLES) model for a scenario without any global greenhouse gas mitigation efforts, and for a 2°C climate policy scenario which assumes internationally coordinated action to mitigate climate change. Outcomes of the analysis are reported globally and for key world regions: the European Union (EU), China, India and the United States. The assessment takes into account current air pollution control legislation in each country. Expenditures on air pollution control under the global climate mitigation regime are reduced in 2050 by 250 billion € when compared to the case without climate measures. Around one third of financial co-benefits estimated world-wide in this study by 2050 occur in China, while an annual cost saving of 35 billion (Euros) € is estimated for the EU if the current air pollution legislation and climate policies are adopted in parallel. Health impacts of air pollution are quantified in terms of loss of life expectancy related to the exposure from anthropogenic emissions of fine particles, as well as in terms of premature mortality due to ground-level ozone. For example in China, current ambient concentrations of particulate matter are responsible for about 40 months-losses in the average life expectancy. In 2050, the climate strategies reduce this indicator by 50 %. Decrease of ozone concentrations estimated for the climate scenario might save nearly 20,000 cases of premature death per year. Similarly significant are reductions of impacts on ecosystems due to acidification and eutrophication.     

Towards the harmonization of water-related policies for managing drought risks across the EU

Drought is recognized as a major issue in the EU, particularly in the Mediterranean region, posing risks to the environment as well as to local and regional economies. The EU policy on water management is continuously evolving, particularly in relation to water scarcity and drought. Starting with the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), which sets the general policy framework for water management across the EU, the EC Communication on Water Scarcity and Drought COM(2007) 414 final set the priorities for managing water scarcity and drought risks. Three follow-up reports (COM(2008) 875 final, COM(2010) 228 final and COM(2011) 133) highlighted achievements and yearly progress within the context of the implementation of the Water Framework Directive, whereas guidance has further been provided through the issue of Technical Reports (e.g. the EC Water Scarcity Drafting Group Technical Report 2008–023 on Drought Management, Including agricultural, drought indicators and climate change aspects). The 2012 EU Water Review (“Blue Print for Safeguarding European Waters” will assess achievements and identify further requirements towards long-term sustainable water use across the EU. However, a harmonized approach on drought risk management at the EU level is still lacking, whereas drought risk in several countries and regions has not been yet fully integrated in water management and relevant sectoral policies.This paper focuses on a proposed paradigm shift from crisis to risk management, which is currently gaining ground as a means of reducing societal vulnerability to droughts. The paper underlines the importance of engaging into risk assessment and management practices and identifies policy gaps and requirements for further improvement of the drought management policy framework at all levels of governance: at the EU, at the national and at the river basin and regional levels.     

电子废物排放持久性有毒污染物的控制政策分析

近年来持久性有毒污染物(PTS)的环境污染和风险问题引起国内外广泛关注,电子废物是其重要的排放源.本研究针对电子废物的排放路径,基于生命周期管理,把电子废物管理分为源头削减、过程控制、末端管理和应急管理四大环节,分析我国电子废物PTS控制相关的法规政策.从管理目标、法规可得性、详细规定、法规协调性和法规政策执行效果五大方面构建法规政策评估体系,采用专家意见法对每个环节涉及的法规政策进行全面评估.源头削减环节的PTS法规政策管理较为完善,有明确的管理目标和较好的法规可得性,而应急管理环节的PTS法规政策管理最不完善,缺乏明确的管理目标和详细规定,法规协调性和执行效果差.根据评估结果针对不同环节提出相应的控制政策建议.     

A framework on interactions of climate and energy policy instruments

In this paper we analyze the concept of interactions between policy instruments addressing environmental, energy and climate change issues. Although discussion on such policies has been taking place for almost two decades, their interactions are not so sufficiently explored. Initially, we refer to literature on various types of interactions and we classify them. Furthermore, we construct a qualitative method that can assist policymakers in selecting an optimal policy mix. This method breaks down into numerous components, the areas where different policies interact, and facilitates the unveiling of potential overlaps and complementarities. These areas consist of categories as measure identification, objectives, scope, market arrangements, market flexibility, financing, technological parameters, timing, compliance parameters and institutional setup. In addition, it renders the possibility of combining different options and design elements of policies. Furthermore, a list of various criteria serves as an assessment tool for interactions, where a weighing factor and uncertainty parameters have been added, in order to produce an aggregate indicator of the ex-ante analysis of the policy mix selected. Through this method, we present a complete framework of discernment of diverse forms of environmental policy instruments.     

安全生产政策研究初探

针对近几年中国生产事故多发,特别是几起重特大事故以及大规模公共安全事故的发生,国家制定了一系列的安全生产政策,并围绕主要政策制定了大量的相关条例、法令、管理办法来控制重大事故的发生,如何有效、彻底、不偏离目标地实施这些政策措施,笔者从政策分析的角度,分析了安全生产政策的制定、执行、评估、监控过程。     

中国环境保护战略政策70年历史变迁与改革方向

系统地回顾了新中国成立70年以来环境保护战略政策的历史变迁,分析其演进脉络、阶段性变化特征和取得的成效,对于制定新时代国家生态环境保护战略政策、全面推进生态文明和"美丽中国"建设具有重大现实意义.以环境保护战略政策历史演进为主线,将新中国成立70年以来的环境保护战略政策历史变迁与发展划分为5个阶段:①非理性战略探索阶段（1949-1971年）;②建立环境保护三大政策和八项管理制度的环境保护基本国策（1972-1991年）;③强化重点流域、区域污染治理的可持续发展战略（1992-2000年）;④控制污染物排放总量、推进生态环境示范创建的环境友好型战略（2001-2012年）;⑤推进环境质量改善和"美丽中国"建设的生态文明战略（2013年至今）.分析表明,我国基本形成了符合国情且较为完善的环境战略政策体系,在生态文明和环境保护法制与体制改革、生态环境目标责任制、生态环境市场经济政策体系以及多元有效的生态环境治理格局下取得了重大成就,对环境保护事业发展发挥了不可替代的支撑作用,为深入推进生态文明建设和"美丽中国"伟大目标实现提供了重要保障.结合新时代生态文明建设和"美丽中国"建设的目标需求,提出了未来我国生态环境保护战略政策的基本走向、改革目标,指出了管理体制、生态法治、空间管控、市场机制、公众参与、责任考核等六大改革方向.      

The implementation of Natura 2000 in forests: A trans- and interdisciplinary assessment of challenges and choices

Natura 2000 is the core of the EU's biodiversity conservation policy. 50% of the overall protected area under Natura 2000 is forest. Yet, comparatively little is known about the implementation of the policy in forests. Building on a rich set of social and natural science data, and an inter- and transdisciplinary discussion process involving scientists from different disciplines as well as EU, national and local stakeholders, this paper identifies five important challenges related to the implementation of Natura 2000 in forests: (1) the balancing of biodiversity conservation and timber production, (2) the integration of conservation (science) and local stakeholders’ demands, (3) climate change, (4) lacking and less effective funding, and (5) conflicts related to other sectoral policies. Subsequently, five possible pathways to tackle these challenges are proposed: (1) a learning approach through better communication and transparency, (2) a pathway emphasizing the role of conservation science in developing management strategies and responding to climate change, (3) an approach of better integrating Europe's citizens in the design and implementation of the policy, (4) an approach highlighting the necessity of an effective funding strategy, and (5) the vision to work towards an integrated European land use and conservation policy. In conclusion, we emphasize, on one hand, the distinct character of the five pathways but, on the other hand, underline that probably all of them need to be followed in order to make the implementation of Natura 2000 in Europe's forests a success story.     

我国海岸带综合管理政策目标初探

在海岸带可持续发展中,综合管理政策起着极为重要的作用。本文把海岸带政策作为海岸带开发与保护协调发展的主因,旨在从制定全国性权威的海岸带管理法,优化海岸带综合管理机构的设置并合理分配其职责,完善三大产业协调发展的海岸带管理经济政策,规划双目标体系的海岸带的生态系统综合管理政策,完善科学有序的海岸带地质灾害预防,提升有效的公众参与,完善海岸带管理的科技政策,优化海岸带资源的开发与保护政策等方面,探讨其深层原由并提出海岸带发展的政策性目标。