Climate change policy and water resources in the EU and Spain. A closer look into the Water Framework Directive

Climate change effects are becoming evident worldwide, with serious regional and local impacts. The European Union (EU) has launched and developed initiatives and policies that scratch the surface of water resources impacts. This article presents an introduction of the existing environmental policy and more concisely in the areas of climate change and the interactions with water resources. It also addresses main management tools, and plans linked to policies, recent updates on the Science–Policy Interface, highlighting major results from research and development projects. Establishing appropriate policies to tackle climate change impacts on water is essential given the cross-sectorial and flowing nature and the importance of water in all environmental, social and economic sectors. There are still some pending reviews and updates in the current EU policy and its implementation, as well as at the national level in Spain. This article identifies existing gaps, and provides recommendations on how and where reforms could take place and be applied by decision makers in the water policy sector.     

Making water policy work in the United Kingdom: A case study of practical approaches to strengthening complex,multi-tiered systems of water governance

We propose a suite of actions for strengthening water governance in contexts with complex, multi-tiered arrangements. In doing so, we focus on the collective water policies and approaches of the United Kingdom (UK), including those of devolved governments, which confront a host of serious water-related challenges—from massive flooding of urban areas and agricultural lands, to pressure on aquifers from rising water demand and drought. Further complexity in addressing these challenges has emerged in the wake of the June 2016 vote to leave the European Union (EU), so-called ‘Brexit’, and the ensuing ‘separation process’ with uncertainties for institutional and governance arrangements to follow. We make ten proposals for improving and reinvigorating water policy in complex, multi-layered situations, and comment specifically on their application in the UK setting. These are: put in place a system-wide water policy; fully embrace community-led nested river basin planning and management; fully fund river basin planning and management; re-focus the policy framing; use best-available data and information; create conversational spaces and become a more water-literate society; mobilise people; support and sustain core community networks; underpin river basin plans with regulatory provisions and effective monitoring and enforcement; and address systemic institutional amnesia. Individually and collectively, we contend that these actions will have a marked effect on transforming the planning and management of water resources. A system-wide water policy that maintains and builds on the substantive biophysical and socio-economic benefits delivered through implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive, together with the more recent Floods Directive, will galvanise stewardship of water in the UK. We urge more active engagement with and empowerment of the multiplicity of system ‘actors’, and highlight the role of non-government actors in a post-Brexit world as conduits for reaching out to and connecting directly with a wide range of water-related actors, especially across the EU. While attention to-date has focused on a plethora of specifically water-related projects, initiatives, plans and regulations, what is really needed is a systemic, long-term view of water resource management.     

Institutional networks and adaptive water governance in the Klamath River Basin,USA

Polycentric networks of formal organizations and informal stakeholder groups, as opposed to centralized institutional hierarchies, can be critically important for strengthening the capacity of governance systems to adapt to unexpected social and biophysical change. Adaptive governance is one type of environmental governance characterized by the emergence of networks that stimulate adaptive capacity through increases in social-learning, communication, trust, public participation and adaptive management. However, detecting and analyzing adaptive governance networks remains elusive, especially given contexts of highly contested resource governance such as large-scale negotiations over water use. Research methods such as social network analysis (SNA) are often infeasible as they necessitate collecting in-depth and politically sensitive personal data from a near-complete set of actors or organizations in a network. Here we present a method for resolving this problem by describing the results of an institutional SNA aimed at characterizing the changing governance network in the Klamath River Basin, USA during a period of contested negotiations over water. Through this research, we forward a method of institutional SNA useful when an individual or egocentric approach to SNA is problematic for political, logistical or financial reasons. We focus our analysis on publically available data signaling changes in formal relationships (statutory, regulatory, contractual) between organizations and stakeholder groups. We find that employing this type of SNA is useful for describing potential and actual transitions in governance that yield increases in adaptive capacity to respond to social and biophysical surprises such as increasing water scarcity and changes in water distribution.     

Policy integration for adaptive water governance: Learning from Scotland's experience

This paper contributes to on-going attempts at bringing together two influential ideas in water governance: Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) and adaptive governance. In particular, a tension remains between the call in IWRM for the use of formal institutions, such as river basin organisations, to secure public policy integration, and the assumptions in adaptive governance in favour of informal collaboration between essentially independent policy actors. To clarify this relationship, this article draws on theoretical research on public policy integration, and uses these insights in an empirical setting to identify mechanisms that can facilitate effective policy integration for adaptive water governance. The research is based on recent attempts in Scotland to implement IWRM ideas to improve flood management. Several governance mechanisms were adopted to facilitate the integration of flood, water and rural land use policies. Six Scottish policy regimes are analysed using documentary sources and interviews. Results challenge the idea that collaboration should primarily be built on either river basin organisations or informal mechanisms. We identify a mix of informal and statutory-based mechanisms which may secure political and technocratic commitment to policy integration.     

Creating resilient water governance for irrigated producers in Mendoza,Argentina

This research explores the institutional water governance system of irrigated agricultural producers in Mendoza, Argentina in the context of a changing climate (predominantly increasing events of drought and water scarcity). An assessment is made of the impact of water governance instruments on producers using the methodology of vulnerability and adaptive capacity. Analysis focuses on the impact of the institutional water governance system on the adaptive capacity of producers’ resources, or capitals (human, social, economic, technological, and natural). Conclusions and suggestions for improving the resiliency of agricultural producers and increasing the adaptive dimensions of Mendoza’s water governance system are made based on this analysis.     

Drinking water quality governance: A comparative case study of Brazil,Ecuador, and Malawi

Human health is greatly affected by inadequate access to sufficient and safe drinking water, especially in low and middle-income countries. Drinking water governance improvements may be one way to better drinking water quality. Over the past decade, many projects and international organizations have been dedicated to water governance; however, water governance in the drinking water sector is understudied and how to improve water governance remains unclear. We analyze drinking water governance challenges in three countries – Brazil, Ecuador, and Malawi – as perceived by government, service providers, and civil society organizations. A mixed methods approach was used: a clustering model was used for country selection and qualitative semi-structured interviews were used with direct observation in data collection. The clustering model integrated political, economic, social and environmental variables that impact water sector performance, to group countries. Brazil, Ecuador and Malawi were selected with the model so as to represent the diversity of the clusters. This comparative case study is important because similar challenges are identified in the drinking water sectors of each country; while, the countries represent diverse socio-economic and political contexts, and the case selection process provides generalizability to our results. We find that access to safe water could be improved if certain water governance challenges were addressed: coordination and data sharing between ministries that deal with drinking water services; monitoring and enforcement of water quality laws; and sufficient technical capacity to improve administrative and technical management of water services at the local level. From an analysis of our field research, we also developed a conceptual framework that identifies policy levers that could be used to influence governance of drinking water quality on national and sub-national levels, and the relationships between these levers.     

陕北油区石油污染水体现状调查

通过对陕北油区的走访和抽样调查,了解石油开采对水体的污染情况.调查结果显示,陕北大部分地区的水体污染程度较轻,可用于农作物的灌溉,仅少部分地区水体污染较重不能用于灌溉,采油污水都远远超过国家相关标准,必须经过处理方可排放.     

Impacts of climatic change on water and natural hazards in the Alps: Can current water governance cope with future challenges? Examples from the European “ACQWA” project

This paper reviews the possible future situation of the Rhone River in the Swiss part of its catchment. Physical processes in the Alps govern the behaviour of the Rhone from its source (Rhone Glacier) to the Lake of Geneva, and substantial changes are expected to occur in the amount and seasonality of precipitation, and in the response of snow and glaciers to a warming climate. As a result, discharge in the alpine part of the Rhone River is likely to undergo an increase in winter and early spring, but strongly decreases from late spring to late autumn. These changes in water regimes will certainly be accompanied by more frequent geomorphic hazards, related to increases in heavy precipitation events and the melting of permanently frozen grounds. The direct and indirect impacts of a warming climate will affect key economic sectors such as tourism, hydropower, and agriculture, while shifts in extreme events will have an impact on the vulnerability of infrastructure and a range of economic sectors and services. Projections of the future course of events can help in advance planning and decision making in order to alleviate some of the more negative consequences of climate and hydrological impacts on key economic sectors in the region. This paper will thus discuss issues related to current and future water governance in the region, whether water-related policies are sufficiently robust today to cope with what may be rapid changes in water availability and water use in coming decades, and to resolve possible rivalries between economic sectors that may be increasingly confronted with problems of water availability at critical times of the year.     

The governance of ecosystem services in river basins: An approach for structured data representation and analysis

River basins provide a wide range of ecosystem services important for human well-being. Ecosystem functions and their value to humans have been thoroughly studied. However, the role of governance characteristics for the sustainable management of ecosystem services has been largely ignored up to now. To close this gap, this article introduces the latest modifications to a database building on the Management and Transition Framework (MTF) that serve to study the relationship between water governance and management systems and their performance with regard to impacts on ecosystem services. This comprehensive approach facilitates structured data collection and representation in order to analyze single case studies or compare case studies regarding the governance and management of water resources and associated ecosystem services. It allows the user to investigate whether certain water governance characteristics, such as stakeholder involvement or vertical integration of governance levels, are associated with a change in the management of ecosystem services or a measurable change in their state. A simplified case from South Africa shows how the database modifications allow addressing links between governance and management processes on the one side and ecosystem services and the way they are handled on the other side. Applying the MTF database leads to evidence-based insights into best practices as well as failed management approaches and interventions. This in turn provides knowledge that can be transferred from science to practice supporting sustainable governance of ecosystem services.     

面向水环境现代化治理的绩效评估与优先区识别——以九龙江流域-厦门湾为例

以福建省九龙江流域-厦门湾为例,构建了水环境治理绩效评估框架进行综合评估.结果显示,2011~2018年九龙江流域-厦门湾的水环境治理经历3个阶段,治理水平逐步上升,但存在陆源氮磷输入控制有待进一步加强、自然海岸生态修复亟需统筹等问题.结合InVEST模型、克里金插值等方法,借助污染物“源-汇”空间分析手段识别治理优先区,发现厦门岛排污口为氮磷输出主要点污染源、流域东南区域为主要面污染源,而厦门湾西海域是承接污染物的主汇区.进而提出源汇空间绩效科学评估、陆海统筹社会-生态系统监测与管理、适应自然的生态工程解决方案等现代化治理对策.     

科层制度视角下旅游地水资源治理的演变研究——以哈尼梯田为例

旅游业的可持续依赖于各项环境资源的投入及其科学有效的治理,而旅游地公共池塘资源治理问题仍有待深入。水资源作为一类典型的公共池塘资源,是目的地可持续发展的关键。以哈尼梯田核心区为案例,以水权科层概念模型为分析框架,通过半结构访谈、参与式观察等质性研究方法,探讨大众旅游发展前后目的地水权结构的演变历程。研究发现：（1）政体变动和大众旅游业的发展是促成目的地水权结构演变的主要动力,从赋权体系和分配方式两方面影响用户的水资源利用实践;（2）旅游情境下,目的地用户主体的异质性增强,水资源稀缺性提高,商品化趋势明显;（3）科层结构下,集体层级的决策实体作为连接国家层级决策实体和用户层级的中间层,只有充分发挥其监督管理的治理职能才能促进资源的公平利用与可持续发展。现阶段案例地水资源治理以市场力量为主导,而政府管理存在一定缺位,面临可持续发展的挑战。     

我国城市黑臭水体综合整治:问题分析、治理思路与措施

随着城市化进程加快和污染物排放量的增大,我国很多城市水体污染负荷超出水体自净能力,水质恶化甚至出现黑臭现象,城市黑臭水体已成为当前公众反映强烈的水环境问题。国务院及相关部门高度重视,接连出台了一系列政策和文件,明确了城市黑臭水体综合整治的目标和方向。介绍了我国城市黑臭水体整治的背景和意义;从点源、面源、内源以及水动力学条件等方面,解析了水体黑臭成因和污染来源;在问题分析的基础上,结合黑臭水体“标本兼治”的目标,提出了黑臭水体整治的总体思路和技术路线;明确了统筹考虑控源截污、内源治理、生态修复、活水保质、监控与管理的黑臭水体治理措施。为加快全国范围内黑臭水体治理,实现治理目标起到重要的借鉴作用。     

Making sense of complexity in risk governance in post-disaster Fukushima fisheries: A scalar approach

This paper evaluates how geographical theories of scale can give a more robust understanding of the governance of complex environmental risks. We assess the case of fisheries in Iwaki City, Fukushima Prefecture in Japan following the 2011 nuclear disaster. Fisheries in Iwaki and Fukushima more widely are operating on a trial basis as understanding of the marine radiation situation becomes clearer, however questions remain over whether consumers will buy produce and to what extent full-scale fisheries will resume. Based on empirical fieldwork undertaken in Fukushima plus supporting documentary analysis, we construct a scalar account of post-disaster Iwaki fisheries. We use this to argue that framing post-disaster fisheries governance at the municipal scale rather than the prefectural scale has opened up opportunities for enacting the more two-way forms of risk governance that contemporary environmental issues may require. We also argue locally-situated ‘experts’ (e.g. fisheries extension officers and citizen science groups) play a key role in negotiating citizens’ and fishers’ relationships with larger-scale scientific discourses due to their ability to work across scales, despite having less techno-scientific expertise than their national-level counterparts. In turn, we suggest that in governance of complex environmental issues, policymakers ought to (a) consider how community-level expectations may differ from risk governance processes developed at larger scales; (b) identify key institutions or figures who can work across scales and support them accordingly; and (c) show cognisance to the social effects that may arise from spatial demarcation of environmental problems.     

黄海北部对虾放流水域污染分析

根据１９９６－１９９８年对黄海北部中国虾放流增殖水域的调查，对该水域的污染状 评价，结果表明，除个别站位ＣＯＤ、Ｃｕ、Ｚｎ、Ｈｇ有少量超标外，综合评价和单因子评价均符合渔业水质标准规定的要求，水质良好，适合幼对虾的栖息和生长。但污染物含量特别是重金属含量有逐年增高的趋势。     

Assessment of stormwater runoff management practices and governance under climate change and urbanization: An analysis of Bangkok,Hanoi and Tokyo

As human history is changing on many fronts, it is appropriate for us to understand the different perspectives of major global challenges, of which, water is a major priority. The water resources in urban areas are either approaching or exceeding the limits of sustainable use at alarming rates. Groundwater table depletion and increasing flood events can be easily realized in rapidly developing urban areas. It is necessary to improve existing water management systems for high-quality water and reduced hydro-meteorological disasters, while preserving our natural/pristine environment in a sustainable manner. This can be achieved through optimal collection, infiltration and storage of stormwater. Stormwater runoff is rainfall that flows over the ground surface; large volumes of water are swiftly transported to local water bodies and can cause flooding, coastal erosion, and can carry many different pollutants that are found on paved surfaces. Sustainable stormwater management is desired, and the optimal capture measure is explored in the paper. This study provides commentary to assist policy makers and researchers in the field of stormwater management planning to understand the significance and role of remote sensing and GIS in designing optimal capture measures under the threat of future extreme events and climate change. Community attitudes, which are influenced by a range of factors, including knowledge of urban water problem, are also considered. In this paper, we present an assessment of stormwater runoff management practices to achieve urban water security. For this purpose, we explored different characteristics of stormwater runoff management policies and strategies adopted by Japan, Vietnam and Thailand. This study analyses the abilities of Japanese, Vietnamese and Thai stormwater runoff management policies and measures to manage water scarcity and achieve water resiliency. This paper presents an overview of stormwater runoff management to guide future optimal stormwater runoff measures and management policies within the governance structure. Additionally, the effects of different onsite facilities, including those for water harvesting, reuse, ponds and infiltration, are explored to establish adaptation strategies that restore water cycle and reduce climate change-induced flood and water scarcity on a catchment scale.     

Environmental permitting as a driver for eco-efficiency in the dairy industry: A closer look at the IPPC directive

This study contributes to the discussion on the potential of the IPPC Directive to serve as a driver for eco-efficiency through the analysis of case studies of British, Finnish and Swedish dairy industries and the corresponding regulatory bodies. The signals given to the companies on the required improvements and the focus of the permitting process – on the manufacturing process rather than end-of-pipe measures – were identified as major factors in determining the influence of the permitting process with regards to eco-efficiency. The analysis revealed that the influence of the IPPC Directive on the dairy industry would probably be noticeable in the UK but less significant in Finland and Sweden. Key issues that require further attention are presented.     

Using participatory geographic approaches for urban flood risk in Santiago de Chile: Insights from a governance analysis

Studies based on information acquired by participative geographic approaches have sought to cope with emergency situations and disasters such as floods. However, the impact of these approaches to flood risk governance systems in order to understand these types of events as a complete risk cycle is still not clear. This paper focuses on analysing the governance possibilities of using participative geographic information like volunteered and public participatory geographic information for flood risk reduction in the case of Santiago de Chile, a city which regularly experiences urban floods during rainy seasons. Based on in-depth interviews and document analysis, our study indicates that a relevant part of the current information used for flood risk reduction efforts is provided to local and regional authorities by the affected population. Though, local actors are not recognized by central agencies as valid agents for the production of official information. Moreover, there are neither instances of communication or deliberation with the community, which reduces the capacity of local actors to discuss possible solutions. Participative geographic instruments are seen as potential mechanisms to strengthen work relations among local actors and authorities, by enhancing new logics for producing and sharing information. The impacts for the current risk governance system though can be diverse depending on the participants' level of commitment of participants and the political relations between actors and agencies. Considered as merely data acquisition and analysis mechanisms, participative instruments reproduce the existing hierarchical top-down structures. Furthermore, local-based approaches can enhance local work, support local diagnostics and increase the decision capacity of citizens.     

Complementary safeguards for robust regional watershed governance in a federation: New York City and its municipal water supply

In federations such as the United States, governments at various levels are experimenting with new watershed governance arrangements to protect water quality for both ecosystem health and human consumption. Such arrangements may bring previously uncooperative governments together to credibly commit to resource protection under the auspices of new and intricate formal institutions. Given the risks of cooperation, theory indicates that a robust arrangement will contain means of holding governing actors accountable to each other. This paper examines a purportedly successful case, the New York City watershed governance arrangement, to identify how safeguards against intergovernmental opportunism promote lasting cooperation. Using the qualitative method of process tracing, this paper finds that the New York City watershed governance arrangement uses structural, judicial, and popular safeguards against opportunistic behaviors by governing actors that might threaten the resource or the arrangement. The results indicate that such safeguards are present and interact with other safeguards and rule institutions at the state and federal level to maintain compliance.     

Plenty of water,not enough strategy: How inadequate accessibility,poor governance and a volatile government can tip the balance against ensuring water security: The case of Nepal

Water security is arguably the single most important factor regarding the future sustainability of our planet. Without water we have no life, and with depleting freshwater resources conflict can easily ensue. The intersection between hydrology and politics requires a delicate balancing from decision-makers to ensure policy is well-informed and science is well communicated. In this paper, we discuss water issues currently faced by Nepal, a nation where freshwater resources are abundant yet political pressures are threatening future water security. We argue that despite adequate water supplies a nation may still experience severe water insecurity, particularly if effective governance and equitable access are not prioritised. We explore potential policy options necessary to achieve a holistic framework for water resources management, which we suggest, need to consider water resource reliability, accessibility and governance as fundamental pillars for ensuring water security.     

藏北高原草地资源合理利用

藏北高原面积60万km₂,海拔4400m以上 ,气候寒冷干旱 ,是青藏高原内生态环境最酷劣的自然地域 ,大部分为无人区。境内55 %的土地为可利用的草地 ,是西藏最大的牧区 ,其绝大部分是由紫花针茅(Stipapurpurea)及青藏苔草(Carexmoorcroftii)等组成的高寒草原与高寒荒漠草原 ,虽然紫花针茅草原是当地藏绵羊的较适宜生态地域 ,但其鲜草产量不足800kg/hm₂,仅在6～9月能利用 ,加上草地土壤富含砂砾 ,抗侵蚀能力弱 ,所以草地生态较脆弱。目前已有1/3的草地受沙化和侵蚀的威协 ,4 %的草地处于过牧退化状况。所以保护草地 ,维持其生态稳定乃是开发藏北高原草地资源的重要原则 ,故对高寒荒漠草原与已沙化的高寒草原须禁牧 ;大部分高寒草原的放牧强度须控制和适度 ,以求永续地利用和获得良好的经济-生态效益。