Utility of non-timber forest products in a small watershed in the Indian Himalayas: the threat of its degradation

This study discusses the use of non-timber forest products (NTFP), especially medicinal plants, by traditional communities in the western Himalaya, India. The great socio-cultural diversity and ecological complexity of the region is also matched by an unusually large variety of forest species being used. A wide range of plants, comprising herbs, shrubs and trees are used for different domestic purposes, such as food, fodder, materials for construction and handicrafts. Wild plants also play a vital role in providing primary health care in the region. In earlier times, forest products were harvested only on a subsistence basis. However, in recent decades, factors such as rising market demand, increasing population pressure, and changes in socio-cultural and socio-economic values have led to overharvesting. It is now estimated that most of the useful wild herbs in the region are overexploited and some of them have become locally extinct. Government forestry policies have, in the past, exclusively emphasized plantation and management of trees and have, unfortunately, ignored non-timber products, as these are usually of comparatively lesser economic importance. However, it is suggested that proper management of NTFP will help upgrade rural economies. Recommended policies to this effect include empowerment of local communities and their involvement in development plans as well as strengthening of indigenous knowledge. To foster sustainable use of NTFP, the following steps are also suggested: integrating traditional and scientific knowledge; safeguarding regeneration potential; cultivating wild species, making appropriate changes to extraction processes used; and establishing more transparency in prices and marketing channels.     

Analysis of livelihood security: a case study in the Kali-Khola watershed of Nepal

This paper examines household livelihoods in highland and lowland communities of the Kali-Khola agricultural watershed in western Nepal on the basis of economic, ecological and social security indicators. Significant differences were found in soil fertility status, pests and diseases management, risk and uncertainties, use of agrochemicals and access to social services. No remarkable variations were found in crop diversification, annual agricultural income and food sufficiency. However, uncertainty and risk in agricultural production is relatively low in highland communities. The findings reveal that agriculture production alone is not a viable livelihood option for agricultural watershed communities in Nepal. The households growing crops with hired labour have relatively sustainable livelihoods in Nepal's agricultural watersheds. Insufficient agricultural land, insufficient working manpower within a family, and lack of access to ecological agricultural services are prime factors in being livelihood insecure in agricultural watershed communities. Therefore, long-term policies and plans need to be developed for the empowerment of local farmers and to support rural livelihoods with adaptable and flexible income-generating strategies, resilient resource management institutions and enhancement of knowledge, skills and social capital.     

Transaction costs and community-based natural resource management in Nepal

Transaction costs in community-based resource management are incurred by households attempting to enforce property right rules over common resources similar to those inherent in private property rights. Despite their importance, transaction costs of community-based management of common pool resources (CPRs) are often not incorporated into the economic analysis of participatory resource management. This paper examines the transaction costs incurred by forest users in community forestry (CF) based on a survey of 309 households belonging to eight different forest user groups (FUGs) in the mid hills of Nepal. The analysis reveals that the average 'poor' household incurred Nepalese rupees (NRS) 1265 in transaction costs annually, while wealthier 'rich' households incurred an average of NRS 2312 per year. Although richer households bear higher proportions of such costs, transaction costs for CF management as a percentage of resource appropriation costs are higher for poorer households (26%) than those of middle-wealth (24%) or rich households (14%). There are also village differences in the level of transaction costs. The results show that transaction costs are a major component of resource management costs and vary according to socio-economic status of resource users and characteristics of the community.     

A watershed management framework for mountain areas: Lessons from 25 years of watershed conservationin Nepal

A watershed management framework for mountain areas is based on lessons learned from watershed management experience, social and institutional learning, and the use of a watershed management program evaluation in Nepal. The lessons led to the adoption of a subwatershed-based ecosystem approach based on local participation at the subwatershed level. An integrated watershed management framework (IWMF) consisting of eight steps with three checklists was developed focusing on improvement-oriented adaptive management. The eight steps lead to the preparation of a watershed management plan. In the process three checklists are used. While the first checklist has general questions pertaining to watershed analysis, the second allows participation analysis of stakeholders in terms of their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats and opens up new prospects for further reinforcing or building new user group institutions based on consensus. The final checklist consists of hierarchical watershed management objectives, including goals, results and activities leading to a program planning matrix. The framework was applied to watershed planning in the Chure Region to compare the framework-based planning with conventional planning procedures. A significant difference in quality and substance of the output, with and without the use of the framework, suggests that an integrated framework is a useful tool for an ecosystem-based approach to natural resource management and socio-technical conservation.     

Women and natural resource management: Illustrations from India and Nepal

This article attempts to delineate women's roles in natural resource management by highlighting their roles in management of water, agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery. The article is based on the findings of case studies in rural areas of India and Nepal done during 2003 and 2004 by the author as well as by other researchers. Taking women as primary respondents, empirical work used participatory techniques, such as in‐depth surveys, focus group discussions and participant observation. Findings suggest that women clearly outdo men in terms of their involvement in use and management of all the studied sectors, i.e., water, agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery. Yet, they face categorical exclusion and denial of equal sharing of benefits from natural resources. In order to ensure sustainable use of these resources, the article recommends that policy makers, planners and development workers must have a better understanding of the relative and often shifting roles of men and women in natural resource management, including division of labour, access to resources, decision‐making and traditional knowledge and practices. The article concludes with sector‐specific recommendations.     

Marine shrimp aquaculture and natural resource degradation in Thailand

Rising demand for shrimp in the developed nations has helped to foster a dramatic growth in marine shrimp aquaculture, particularly in South America and South Asia. In Thailand, Marine shrimp aquaculture is now an important earmer of foreign exchange. The growth in Production has been achieved through the expansion of the culture area and the adoption of intensive production methods. The conversion of near-shore areas to shrimp culture, however, is proving to have many consequences that impinge on the environmental integrity of coastal areas. This paper reviews the development of Thailand's marine shrimp culture industry and examines the nature of the environmental impacts that are emerging. It then discusses the implications these have for rural poor and the long-term viability of the culture industry.     

Natural resource availability: Some economic aspects

This paper treats some of the more important aspects of natural resource availability. This includes a definition of real or opportunity costs in resource extraction as compared to money costs; some economics of secondary materials and recycling; energy resources; and a demonstration of the effect of exponential growth in resource use on the time to resource exhaustion. The paper concludes with a short note on econometrics and commodity models.     

Natural resource planning: An urban prospective

The use and development of natural resources is becoming a critical concern, especially considering the economic development and stability of the world money market. The question here is one of resources as a political weapon. As resources become more scarce, it becomes necessary to make greater intensive use of resources that are presently available. One dimension that has been missing is the development of urban areas. Resources in this domain have been abused and the question now is how to incorporate these types of decisions into land-use planning to refurbish urban areas. Planning is the key to use of a resource. The world can no longer afford crisis planning. The key dimension to future success in resource problems is preventive planning.     

Natural resource abundance and economic growth revisited

An analysis using reserves as a measure of resource abundance suggests that natural resource abundance has not been a significant structural determinant of economic growth in the seventies and eighties. The story behind the effect of natural resources on economic growth is a complex one that typical growth regressions do not capture well. Preliminary evidence suggests that natural resources may affect economic growth through both ‘positive’ and ‘negative channels.’ Potential reverse causality running from these ‘channels’ to fuel and mineral reserves further complicates the analysis. I conjecture that, as economic historians suggest, the ability of a country to exploit its resource base depends critically on the nature of the learning process involved.     

Natural resource economics: Relevance in planning and management

This article provides an overview of natural resource economics. It begins with a summary of historical and current views on resource scarcity. It then discusses economic models for optimal management of non-renewable and renewable resources at the micro and macro levels and evaluates their usefulness in planning, management and policy making.     

Institutional development for sustainable rangeland resource and ecosystem management in mountainous areas of northern Nepal

Rangelands represent one of the most important natural resources in mountainous regions of northern Nepal. However, a poor understanding of the social dimensions of rangeland use has limited their proper management and sustainable development, which represent major challenges for Nepal's resource managers. Institutional development is thought to be a viable solution to this problem and may ultimately lead to improved rangeland management in Nepal. Based on this hypothesis, a study was conduced in the Rasuwa district of northern Nepal to examine the effectiveness of institutional development at the local and national levels in mitigating the problems facing sustainable rangeland management by using an institutional analysis and development (IAD) framework. The information and data were mainly collected from different stakeholders, farmers, professionals and practitioners using a toolkit of participatory rural appraisal (PRA), workshops and literature review. It can be concluded from this case study that a number of institutional development efforts are needed to promote sustainable rangeland management in this region. First, local herders represent a repository of rich indigenous knowledge essential to sustaining sound rangeland management practices; hence, indigenous practices need to be integrated into modern technologies. Second, public services and technical support are currently unavailable or inaccessible to local herders; hence, research, development and extension interventions need to be initiated for marginalized pastoral communities. Third, rangeland institutions are incomplete and ill-organized, so institutional development of various organizations is necessary for promoting sustainable rangeland management. Fourth, the policies and governance necessary for promoting rangeland management are not well-designed; hence, governance reform and policy development need to be formulated through internal and external agencies and organizations.     

Natural resource abundance in Nigeria: From dependence to development

There are several strategies open to an economy in its attempt to attain sustainable economic development depending on its historical background and resource endowment. One of such is the resource-led strategy. Nigeria is superabundantly rich in crude oil and has reaped billions of petrodollars. However, the country seems to be facing the problem of successfully translating this huge oil wealth into sustainable development. This paper employs the vector error-correction methodology in examining the long-run impact of the huge oil wealth accruing to Nigeria on its economic development. Indicators such as per capita GDP (PGDP), household consumption, infrastructural development (electricity), and agricultural and manufacturing output growth rates are examined. The results suggest a significant positive long-run impact of per capita oil revenue on per capita household consumption and electricity generation, while a negative relationship is established for GDP, agriculture and manufacturing. Even for those variables with negative relationship at current period, there exist positive relationships at subsequent lags. Thus, oil revenue, if properly managed and invested, could be effectively used to induce oil-led development in Nigeria provided the current inhibitions of corruption, lack of transparency, accountability and fairness in its use and distribution are removed.     

Drivers of illegal resource extraction: An analysis of Bardia National Park,Nepal

While park-people conflicts have received worldwide attention, the extent of illegal resource extraction and the relationship with communities’ livelihoods has gained little attention in the literature. Thus this paper investigates the impact of socio-economic factors involved in illegal fuel wood and fodder extraction at Bardia National Park in Nepal. Household questionnaires, key-informant interviews and focus groups were conducted to identify different plant species used by households and explore the causes and mode of resource extraction in three buffer zone villages in the park. Altogether 50 different plants were identified by villagers that were used regularly for different livelihood purposes. Almost half of the respondents met their needs by illegally and regularly extracting resources from the park. Incentive schemes in the form of development projects were important but not sufficient in meeting the basic needs of households’ especially for such daily items such as fuel wood and fodder. The results described in this paper showed that proximity and access to resources either in the national park, the buffer zone community forest or the government forest, and impact on the livelihoods significantly influenced the likelihood of illegal resource extraction activities. Villages that differed in terms of their location to the resource base, the provision of alternative resources and influence of these on their livelihoods showed significant differences in terms of their patterns of resource extraction and use of these resources. As resource use options, resource interest, and resource extraction patterns were different between villages and dependent on circumstances specific to villages, site-specific management strategies were necessary and more influential than the enforcement of ‘one-size fits all’ policies. It is suggested that park management plans should be flexible and adaptive enough to meet site-specific contexts and to endear wider support from local communities.     

Natural Resource Dependency and Decentralized Conservation Within Kanchenjunga Conservation Area Project,Nepal

Kanchenjunga Conservation Area Project (KCAP) in Nepal is among the first protected areas in the world to institute a completely decentralized system of conservation and development. Proponents of decentralized conservation claim that it increases management efficiency, enhances the responsiveness to local needs, and promotes greater equity among local residents. This study assessed local equity by evaluating the levels of dependencies on natural resources among households and the factors affecting that dependency. Data were collected via detailed surveys among 205 randomly selected households within the KCAP. Natural resource dependency was evaluated by comparing the ratio of total household income to income derived from access to natural resources. Economic, social, and access-related variables were employed to determine potential significant predictors of dependency. Overall, households were heavily dependent on natural resources for their income, especially households at higher elevations and those with more adult members. The households that received remittances were most able to supplement their income and, therefore, drastically reduced their reliance on the access to natural resources. Socio-economic variables, such as land holdings, education, caste, and ethnicity, failed to predict dependency. Household participation in KCAP-sponsored training programs also failed to affect household dependency; however, fewer than 20% of the households had any form of direct contact with KCAP personnel within the past year. The success of the KCAP as a decentralized conservation program is contingent on project capacity-building via social mobilization, training programs, and participatory inclusion in decision making to help alleviate the dependency on natural resources.     

The effects of multiple beneficial management practices on hydrology and nutrient losses in a small watershed in the Canadian prairies

Most beneficial management practices (BMPs) recommended for reducing nutrient losses from agricultural land have been established and tested in temperate and humid regions. Previous studies on the effects of these BMPs in cold-climate regions, especially at the small watershed scale, are rare. In this study, runoff and water quality were monitored from 1999 to 2008 at the outlets of two subwatersheds in the South Tobacco Creek watershed in Manitoba, Canada. Five BMPs-a holding pond below a beef cattle overwintering feedlot, riparian zone and grassed waterway management, grazing restriction, perennial forage conversion, and nutrient management-were implemented in one of these two subwatersheds beginning in 2005. We determined that >80% of the N and P in runoff at the outlets of the two subwatersheds were lost in dissolved forms, ≈ 50% during snowmelt events and ≈ 33% during rainfall events. When all snowmelt- and rainfall-induced runoff events were considered, the five BMPs collectively decreased total N (TN) and total P (TP) exports in runoff at the treatment subwatershed outlet by 41 and 38%, respectively. The corresponding reductions in flow-weighted mean concentrations (FWMCs) were 43% for TN and 32% for TP. In most cases, similar reductions in exports and FWMCs were measured for both dissolved and particulate forms of N and P, and during both rainfall and snowmelt-induced runoff events. Indirect assessment suggests that retention of nutrients in the holding pond could account for as much as 63 and 57%, respectively, of the BMP-induced reductions in TN and TP exports at the treatment subwatershed outlet. The nutrient management BMP was estimated to have reduced N and P inputs on land by 36 and 59%, respectively, in part due to the lower rates of nutrient application to fields converted from annual crop to perennial forage. Overall, even though the proportional contributions of individual BMPs were not directly measured in this study, the collective reduction of nutrient losses from the five BMPs was substantial.     

Long-term dynamics in land resource use and the driving forces in the Beressa watershed, highlands of Ethiopia

Land degradation in the Ethiopian highlands is considered to be one of the major problems threatening agricultural development and food security in the country. However, knowledge about the forces driving the long-term dynamics in land resources use is limited. This research integrates biophysical information with socio-economic processes and policy changes to examine the dynamics of land resource use and farmers' livelihoods in the Beressa watershed for over 40 years during the second half of the 20th century. It was found that there have been substantial dynamics in land resource use in the area. The natural vegetation cover has been extensively cleared, although most of the cleared areas have since been replaced with plantations. Grazing land has expanded remarkably at the expense of cropland and bare land. However, the expansion of cropland was minimal over the 43-year period despite a quadrupling of the population density. Yields have not increased to compensate for the reduction in per capita cropland, and the soil quality appears to be not that good. Though the farmers perceived it otherwise, the long-term rainfall pattern has improved. In response to soil degradation, water shortage, socio-economic and policy changes, farmers have tended to gradually change from annual cropping to tree planting and livestock production to cope with the problems of soil degradation, water scarcity and smaller farms. Income diversification through the sale of wood and cattle dung is becoming a major livelihood strategy. Apparently, however, little attention has been paid to investments in soil and water conservation (SWC) and local soil fertility amendments. In particular, increased erosion and related high nutrient losses in sediments, as well as the removal of potentially available soil nutrients through the sale of manure threatens to damage agricultural sustainability in the area.     

Sediment delivery linkages in a chaparral watershed following a wildfire

The purpose of this research is to study the temporal and spatial sediment delivery to and within the stream network following a wildfire on a chaparral watershed in Arizona, USA. Methods include interpretation of channel processes (aggradation, degradation) from sequential aerial photographs, field measurements of sediment delivery, and overland flow from ten microwatersheds having different vegetation cover (no vegetation, chaparral cover, and bare with vegetation buffer strips). The response of the watershed to the fire was very complex. The fire reduced the chaparral cover to zero in most locations and severe erosion led to filling of the channels by sediment. With vegetation recovery, sediment delivery from the watershed practically ceased. Vegetation buffer strips were mainly responsible for arresting the sediment delivered from bare hillslopes. Relatively clear water, entering the channels, caused degradation in the tributaries that delivered the sediment into the main stream at El Oso Creek. Due to high water infiltration by immense volumes of sediment deposits in the middle reach, the sediment from the tributaries was deposited as in-channel fans. In contrast, the upper reach of El Oso Creek behaved similarly to the tributaries. It aggraded after the fire and was followed by degradation. The low reach of El Oso Creek is degrading because it is still adjusting base level to the incision of the master stream. Implications of this study are that land managers, concerned to avoid severe erosion and sedimentation following disturbance, should concentrate on the establishment and enhancement of vegetation buffer strips along channel banks.     

Natural resource dependence and the accumulation of physical and human capital in Latin America

In a simultaneous model of human and physical capital accumulation for 17 Latin American countries from 1975 to 2004, we show that overall resource dependence has no significant direct effect on physical and human capital. When disaggregating the natural resource variable into sub-categories, we find that petroleum export dependence has a significant positive direct effect on physical capital, but a significant negative direct effect on human capital. Agricultural export dependence shows a significant negative direct effect on physical capital. Petroleum exports have a long run positive effect on physical capital but a negative long run effect on human capital. Agricultural exports have a negative long run effect on physical and human capital.