The costs of incidents on urban fringe farms: a planning problem?

Several surveys have investigated the nature of farming under urban fringe conditions but none, until now, have involved the continuous monitoring of criminal and civil law incidents over a period of time. This paper describes the results of such a survey on urban fringe farms between Tyneside and Sunderland in North‐East England. The analysis outlines the nature of offences which occurred, the type of offender, the time incurred by and cost of the incident to the farmer. The cost of the offences should determine how many resources are devoted to remedying the problem, e.g. in modifying local plans.     

Culture and the environment in Britain

The British pride themselves on their long tradition of landscape management rooted in the aristocratic and landowning classes of the 18th and 19th centuries. The British also emphasize that the rise of modern pollution control began in the Victorian industrial era with the emergence of the national Inspectorates and the local Commissioners of Sewers. All these traditions are rooted in British social history, which was heavily influenced by class, power, and the changing shape of industrial and agricultural development. In modern Britain, affected by industrial recession, where concern over jobs and growth appears to dominate public and political attention, as well as public spending cuts that sap the morale and effectiveness of the major regulatory agencies, attitudes toward, and the execution of, environmental protection are undergoing a subtle but profound revolution. It is slowly but agonizingly being recognized that economic growth and social well-being cannot be disconnected from environmental processes and the limits these impose on management and technological intervention. A 21st century Britain will have to integrate conservation with development in order to survive.     

Carbon in the Vegetation and Soils of Great Britain

•The total amount of carbon held by vegetation in Great Britain is estimated to be 114 Mtonnes. •Woodlands and forests hold 80% of the G.B. total although they occupy only about 11% of the rural land area. Broadleaf species hold about 50% of the carbon in woodlands and forests. •A map of carbon in the vegetation of Great Britain at 1 km×1 km resolution based on land cover identified in the I.T.E. Land Cover Map is presented. The predominant location of vegetation carbon is the broadleaved woodlands of southern England. •The amount of carbon in the soils of Great Britain is estimated to be 9838 Mt (6948 Mt in Scotland and 2890 Mt in England and Wales). •In Scotland, most soil carbon is in blanket peats, whereas most soil carbon is in stagnogley soils in England and Wales. •The carbon content of the soils of Great Britain is mapped at 1 km×1 km resolution. Scottish peat soils have the greatest density of carbon and in total contain 4523 Mt of carbon, 46% of the G.B. total.     

Structural trends in agriculture and preservation of family farms

The characteristics and role of the family farm have profoundly influenced the quality of human ecology. Considerable debate exists about the role of the family farm in the United States. This article attempts to clarify aspects of this debate by: (a) examining various definitions of the family farm and the conclusions that flow from these definitions, (b) presenting results of a structural analysis of American agriculture to better understand the origins of the debate and the relationship between people and agriculture, and (c) discussing the relevancy of some data and concepts used in evaluating the consequences of the structure of the agricultural sector.     

Effects of conservation tillage on the performance of Lake Erie basin farms

This paper summarizes research that investigates the effects of alternative farming practices on the performance of Lake Erie basin farms. First, data from a representative panel of about 100 farmers is analyzed to determine how conservation tillage, rotations, and other factors affected farms' economic returns during 1987-1992. Statistical analysis of these data is unable to demonstrate that there is any significant relationship between farming system (i.e., tillage and rotation) variables and farm profitability. Next, a farm-level bioeconomic simulation model is used to analyze the effects of conservation tillage adoption on farm profitability, farm size, and pollutant emissions. Findings are that tillage system, farm size, and crop selection are determined jointly and may substantially improve economic performance of farms. Conservation tillage enables farms to be larger and more specialized, and as a result, farm profitability improves. Statistical analysis of farm panel data is unable to show the effect of tillage on profitability because it neglects to account for endogeneity of variables (or joint effects of tillage, size, crop selection, and performance) in production decisions.     

Of firms and farms: agricultural ethics and the problem of compensation

Compensating farmers out of public funds for financiallosses due to adverse weather conditions and animaldiseases is fairly common in most Western countries.This government policy differs from that towardsentrepeneurs in other economic branches. Whatjustifies this differential treatment? In the firstpart of this article, three theories of justice arepresented that offer a general framework for dealingwith problems of compensatory justice. In the secondpart, the possibilities of justifiying differentialtreatment of agriculture within each of these theoriesare explored. It is concluded that compensatorypractices in agriculture require fundamentalrethinking in view of the changing technological,economic, and cultural conditions of agriculture.     

Estimating the extent and change in Broad Habitats in Great Britain

A stratified random sample of kilometre squares in Great Britain was visited and completely mapped using four areal themes (agriculture and semi-natural vegetation, forestry, physiography and buildings and communications). The maps were digitised and the attribute information recorded to produce an electronic database. Information was summarised by square and then bootstrap re-sampling techniques were used to produce national estimates with statistical confidence intervals. The results for 1998 showed the terrestrial Broad Habitats had a range in extent covering two orders of magnitude from Montane (49000ha) to Improved Grassland (5482000ha). Just under half of Britain is covered by agricultural Broad Habitats, about 12% by woodland and just under 10% by Urban Habitats. The remaining quarter of the land area is covered by semi-natural Broad Habitats. By revisiting the same sample of squares previously visited in 1990, changes in the quantity and quality of the Broad Habitats have been determined. Significant increases in area have occurred in the Broadleaved, Mixed and Yew Woodland and Built Up and Gardens. The largest areal reduction was in Acid Grassland although that was in part balanced by a gain in Fen, Marsh and Swamp. The most significant ecological loss was in the area of Calcareous Grassland. The consequences of having different sample sizes for the different years are discussed.     

Evaluation of the impact of forest reserves on harvesting costs and provincial revenues in ontario

The establishment of forest reserves for the benefit of other resources and other land uses in areas where timber harvesting is taking place constitutes a significant withdrawal of wood fiber annually in Ontario.This article reports on a case study carried out on a representative forest area in northern Ontario where the primary land use is timber extraction. The results projected to the whole province show that the direct cost to the provincial economy of removing these forest lands from timber production is of the order of $2.5 million annually.     

Influence of production costs and inventories on mineral prices

The purpose of this article is to broaden understanding of the factors which exert major influences on prices for industrial metals beyond the widely recognized tendency for prices and inventories to move in opposite directions. Specifically, the relationship between inventory levels and price volatility is examined. In addition, the relationship between prices and production costs is also examined. A few thoughts are expressed on the relationship between prices and industry structure. The paper includes a qualitative discussion about why a link should exist between prices and production costs, a graph illustrating the relationship between prices and inventories, and econometric equations quantifying the relationship between prices, production costs and inventories.     

Emerging international principles of environmental protection and their impact on Britain

Summary The paper reviews emerging international principles of environmental protection, as well as their refinement, during the last two decades of implementation. It is argued that international efforts were primarily directed towards the prevention of transfrontier pollution and could only succeed if there was agreement on the meaning of the term pollution. The concept of pollution is therefore explored in some detail. Confusion about the meaning of pollution, combined with the impact of international regulation (both global and European) on British practice, help to explain some of the fundamental problems now facing the traditional British pollution control regime, especially its legal and philosophical basis. It is argued that recent and proposed administrative changes will be insufficient to comply with European expectations. Political changes and a more active involvement by the judiciary and the public may be required.Dr Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen is a Research Fellow at the Science Policy Research Unit of the University of Sussex. She obtained her first degree in Geography from the University of Adelaide and her D Phil in International Relations from the University of Sussex.     

Effects of sheep and goat grazing on the species diversity in the alpine meadows of Western Himalaya

This paper deals with effects of sheep and goat grazing on plant species diversity, species richness and species composition in two important conservation areas of the Western Himalaya; the Valley of Flowers (VOF) National Park and the Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP). The VOF is a completely Protected Area as it is devoid of livestock grazing whereas, 20,000 sheep and goats annually graze in GHNP. Both the National Parks possess sub-alpine and alpine vegetation that is distributed in 13 major habitat types. Present investigations indicate that all the habitat types in VOF are higher in plant species diversity and richness compared to habitat types in GHNP. Similarly, all three eco-climatic zones in VOF are higher in species diversity and richness compared to GHNP. Species diversity also decreases with increasing altitude in both the National Parks. The findings of this study are discussed in the light of the management and conservation of alpine meadows of the Western Himalayas.     

Enterprise zones in Britain: the form and consequences of the planning scheme approach

Enterprise Zones have been in operation as part of government policy for over three years. They contain a special form of planning procedures whereby a general planning permission is given for development subject to certain exclusions and conditions. This article summarises and compares the planning schemes operating in all 25 Enterprise Zones in Britain and considers what have been the results of this planning approach to date in the zones. The operation of these planning schemes has not led to a feared lowering of development standards but nevertheless is not regarded as being suitable for wider application in the planning system.     

Multiscale effects of management, environmental conditions, and land use on nitrate leaching in dairy farms

Nitrate leaching in intensive grassland- and silage maize-based dairy farming systems on sandy soil is a main environmental concern. Here, statistical relationships are presented between management practices and environmental conditions and nitrate concentration in shallow groundwater (0.8 m depth) at farm, field, and point scales in The Netherlands, based on data collected in a participatory approach over a 7-yr period at one experimental and eight pilot commercial dairy farms on sandy soil. Farm milk production ranged from 10 to 24 Mg ha(-1). Soil and hydrological characteristics were derived from surveys and weather conditions from meteorological stations. Statistical analyses were performed with multiple regression models. Mean nitrate concentration at farm scale decreased from 79 mg L(-1) in 1999 to 63 in 2006, with average nitrate concentration in groundwater decreasing under grassland but increasing under maize land over the monitoring period. The effects of management practices on nitrate concentration varied with spatial scale. At farm scale, nitrogen surplus, grazing intensity, and the relative areas of grassland and maize land significantly contributed to explaining the variance in nitrate concentration in groundwater. Mean nitrate concentration was negatively correlated to the concentration of dissolved organic carbon in the shallow groundwater. At field scale, management practices and soil, hydrological, and climatic conditions significantly contributed to explaining the variance in nitrate concentration in groundwater under grassland and maize land. We conclude that, on these intensive dairy farms, additional measures are needed to comply with the European Union water quality standard in groundwater of 50 mg nitrate L(-1). The most promising measures are omitting fertilization of catch crops and reducing fertilization levels of first-year maize in the rotation.     

Modelling the effects of trade-offs between long and short-term objectives in fisheries management

Fisheries management is typically a complex problem, from both an environmental and political perspective. The main source of conflict occurs between the need for stock conservation and the need for fishing community well-being, which is typically measured by employment and income levels. For most fisheries, overexploitation of the stock requires a reduction in the level of fishing activity. While this may lead to long-term benefits (both conservation and economic), it also leads to a short-term reduction in employment and regional incomes. In regions which are heavily dependent on fisheries, short-term consequences of conservation efforts may be considerable. The relatively high degree of scientific uncertainty with respect to the status of the stocks and the relatively short lengths of political terms of office, generally give rise to the short-run view taking the highest priority when defining policy objectives. In this paper, a multi-objective model of the North Sea is developed that incorporates both long-term and short-term objectives. Optimal fleet sizes are estimated taking into consideration different preferences between the defined short-term and long-term objectives. The subsequent results from the model give the short-term and long-term equilibrium status of the fishery incorporating the effects of the short-term objectives. As would be expected, an optimal fleet from a short-term perspective is considerably larger than an optimal fleet from a long-run perspective. Conversely, stock sizes and sustainable yields are considerably lower in the long-term if a short-term perspective is used in setting management policies. The model results highlight what is essentially a principal-agent problem, with the objectives of the policy makers not necessarily reflecting the objectives of society as a whole.     

Application of modeling and simulation tools in costs and pollution monitoring

This paper presents the development and application of process modeling and simulation tools to aid in the monitoring and measuring of pollution from industry, and investigate a plant's overall performance. A case study of a generic reduction plant is investigated, taking into account the underlying principles that determine the amount of fluoride emissions released from the plant's processes. The simulation study includes the investigation of the gas cleaning system within the plant, such as the system's operating relationships between the scrubbing efficiency, wear of the scrubber filter bags, maintenance costs and its response to the change of scrubbing circulation. Two sets of simulation runs are performed to seek a balance for the plant's overall system performance, taking into account environmental issues (fluoride emissions) and cost. The final simulation result demonstrates that cost savings can be achieved when the plant operates in a cleaner manner.     

Damage costs of nitrogen fertilizer in Europe and their internalization

This paper estimates the environmental impacts and damage costs (‘external costs’) of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and discusses options for reducing these impacts, including their consequences for farmers and for producers of fertilizer. The damage costs of the fertilizer life cycle that could be estimated are large, about 0.3 [euro]/kg_N (compared to the current market price of about 0.5 [euro]/kg_N); much of that is due to global warming by N₂O and CO₂ emissions during fertilizer production and N₂O emissions from fertilized fields. Policy options for internalizing these costs are discussed, and the consequences of reduced fertilizer input on crop yield are explored. If the damage costs were internalized by a pollution tax or tradable permits that are auctioned by the government, the economic consequences would be heavy, with a large revenue loss for farmers. However, if it is internalized by tradable permits that are given out free, the revenue loss for farmers is small. The loss for fertilizer producers increases linearly with the amount of external cost that is internalized, by contrast to the loss for farmers which increases quadratically but is very small for a damage cost of 0.3 [euro]/kg_N. Expressed as a change in the fertilizer-dependent part of the farmers' revenue (crop yield × crop price – fertilizer used× fertilizer price), the decrease is less than 0.5% for most crops; the losses are larger only for crops with low [euro]/ha revenue. Averaged over wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beet and rapeseed, the loss to farmers is about 0.1% in the UK and 0.4% in Sweden. The revenue loss for fertilizer producers is larger, about 8% in the UK and 14% in Sweden.     

健全福州港船舶溢油防治体系的对策

根据我国履行《90年国际油污防备、反应和合作公约》(OPRC公约)的要求,对福州港溢油事故概率及不同规模溢油量发生概率定量计算分析,运用概率与数理统计方法计算出福州港发生溢油事故的概率基础值,并针对福州港的实际情况,提出风险防范措施。     

The benefits and costs of reducing emissions from the electricity sector

Recent federal policy proposals to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO(2)), nitrogen oxides (NO(x)), and mercury from the US electricity sector promise important improvements in air quality and reductions in acid deposition. The cost of achieving these reductions depends on the form and stringency of the regulation. In this research, we analyze the economic benefits and costs of the US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) as characterized in the supplemental rule proposed in June 2004, and the Clean Air Mercury Rule (CAMR) as proposed in February 2004. The assessment integrates a model of the electricity sector, two models of atmospheric transport of air pollutants, and a model of environmental and public health endpoints affected by pollution. We model explicitly the emissions of SO(2), NO(x), mercury and carbon dioxide (CO(2)) and the effects of changes in emissions of SO(2) and NO(x) on environmental and public health. The manner in which mercury emissions are regulated will have important implications not only for the cost of the regulation, but also for emission levels for SO(2) and NO(x) and where those emissions are located. We find the economic benefits of CAIR and CAMR are far greater than the costs. Recent estimates of benefits of reductions in mercury and acidification indicate that our model captures the lion's share of quantifiable benefits. We also find that the EPA would have been justified on economic grounds in pursuing additional SO(2) emissions reductions beyond the requirements of CAIR.