Frequency of tail loss does not reflect innate predisposition in temperate New Zealand lizards

Caudal autotomy (tail shedding) is a defence mechanism against predation which is used by lizards when other tactics, such as crypsis and escape, prove ineffective. The speed at which autotomy occurs has important implications for survival, and the accuracy of tail loss is of consequence for an individual’s future fitness. Autotomy is shaped by both taxon-specific tail morphology as well as environmental factors such as predator history, and it can be difficult to distinguish between these processes. In this study, the frequency of tail-regeneration observed (field rate of autotomy), latency (speed of autotomy in the laboratory) and accuracy of tail loss were measured in six lizard species from two families (Scincidae and Diplodactylidae). The field rate and latency of autotomy was similar among all species except for the large nocturnal skink Oligosoma macgregori, which was less likely to autotomise. Latency and field rates of autotomy were not correlated, implying that the field rates of autotomy are related to predation attacks, social interactions, or some other environmental factor, rather than an innate disposition to autotomy. Further study, for example comparing populations with low and high predation pressure, will help to explain which of these factors are influencing autotomy rates.     

Tail loss compromises immunity in the many-lined skink, Eutropis multifasciata

Tail autotomy incurs energetic costs, and thus, a trade-off in resource allocation may lead to compromised immunity in lizards. We tested the hypothesis that tailless lizards will favor constitutive innate immunity responses over an energetically costly inflammatory response. The influence of fasting and colorful ornamentation was also investigated. We experimentally induced tail autotomy in the lizard Eutropis multifasciata and found that inflammation was suppressed by tail loss, but not further affected by fasting; the suppressive effect of colorful ornamentation was manifested only in males, but not in females. Constitutive innate immunity was not affected by any of these factors. As expected, only costly inflammation was compromised, and a less expensive constitutive innate immunity might be favored as a competent first-line defense during energetically demanding periods. After considering conventional trade-offs among tail regeneration and reproduction, further extending these studies to incorporate disease risk and how this influences escape responses to predators and future reproduction would make worthwhile studies.     

Tail loss and thermoregulation in the common lizard<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Zootoca vivipara</Emphasis>

Tail autotomy in lizards is an adaptive strategy that has evolved to reduce the risk of predation. Since tail loss reduces body mass and moving ability—which in turn are expected to influence thermal balance—there is potential for a trade-off between tail autotomy and thermoregulation. To test this hypothesis, we studied a common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) population at high latitude, inhabiting a high-cost thermal environment. Z. vivipara is a small, non-territorial lizard known as a very accurate thermoregulator. We made two predictions: (1) the reduced body weight due to tail loss results in faster heating rate (a benefit), and (2) the reduction in locomotor ability after tail loss induces a shift to the use of thermally poorer microhabitats (a cost), thus decreasing the field body temperatures of active lizards. We did not find any effect of tail loss on heating rate in laboratory experiments conducted under different thermal conditions. Likewise, no significant relationship between tail condition and field body temperatures, or between tail condition and thermal microhabitat use, were detected. Thus, our results suggest that tail autotomy does not influence the accuracy of thermoregulation in small-bodied lizards.Electronic Supplementary Material  Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at     

Postautotomy tail activity in the Balearic lizard, Podarcis lilfordi

Caudal autotomy is an effective antipredator strategy widespread among lizards. The shed tail thrashes vigorously for long periods to distract the predator and facilitate the lizard's escape. This movement is maintained by energy supplied by the anaerobic conversion of glycogen into lactate. It has been suggested that lactate accumulation serves as an index for the vigor of tail thrashing. We made three predictions: (1) tail loss frequency should be higher under heavier predation regime, (2) the duration of postautotomy tail movement should be extended in populations under heavy predation pressure as an adaptation to the higher risk and the increased need for defense, and (3) as result, lactate in these tail tissues should be concentrated at higher levels. To eliminate the impact of phylogeny and environmental factors on the interpretation of our result, we focused exclusively on one species, the Balearic lizard (Podarcis lilfordi). We studied three populations under different predation pressure but sharing the same climatic conditions. We found no differences among the studied populations either in postautotomy duration of tail movement or in levels of final lactate accumulation while autotomy frequency was higher where predation pressure was more intense. Tail loss effectiveness is directly influenced by the level of predation, while secondary features of the trait appear to remain independent from the impact of environment.     

Tail regeneration affects the digestive performance of a Mediterranean lizard

In caudal autotomy, lizards shed their tail to escape from an attacking predator. Since the tail serves multiple functions, caudal regeneration is of pivotal importance. However, it is a demanding procedure that requires substantial energy and nutrients. Therefore, lizards have to increase energy income to fuel the extraordinary requirements of the regenerating tail. We presumed that autotomized lizards would adjust their digestion to acquire this additional energy. To clarify the effects of tail regeneration on digestion, we compared the digestive performance before autotomy, during regeneration, and after its completion. Tail regeneration indeed increased gut passage time but did not affect digestive performance in a uniform pattern: though protein income was maximized, lipid and sugar acquisition remained stable. This divergence in proteins may be attributed to their particular role in tail reconstruction, as they are the main building blocks for tissue formation.     

Intraspecific competition and high food availability are associated with insular gigantism in a lizard

Resource availability, competition, and predation commonly drive body size evolution. We assess the impact of high food availability and the consequent increased intraspecific competition, as expressed by tail injuries and cannibalism, on body size in Skyros wall lizards (Podarcis gaigeae). Lizard populations on islets surrounding Skyros (Aegean Sea) all have fewer predators and competitors than on Skyros but differ in the numbers of nesting seabirds. We predicted the following: (1) the presence of breeding seabirds (providing nutrients) will increase lizard population densities; (2) dense lizard populations will experience stronger intraspecific competition; and (3) such aggression, will be associated with larger average body size. We found a positive correlation between seabird and lizard densities. Cannibalism and tail injuries were considerably higher in dense populations. Increases in cannibalism and tail loss were associated with large body sizes. Adult cannibalism on juveniles may select for rapid growth, fuelled by high food abundance, setting thus the stage for the evolution of gigantism.     

Run for your life,but bite for your rights? How interactions between natural and sexual selection shape functional morphology across habitats

A central issue in evolutionary biology is how morphology, performance, and habitat use coevolve. If morphological variation is tightly associated with habitat use, then differences in morphology should affect fitness through their effect on performance within specific habitats. In this study, we investigate how evolutionary forces mold morphological traits and performance differently given the surrounding environment, at the intraspecific level. For this purpose, we selected populations of the lizard Podarcis bocagei from two different habitat types, agricultural walls and dunes, which we expected to reflect saxicolous vs ground-dwelling habits. In the laboratory, we recorded morphological traits as well as performance traits by measuring sprint speed, climbing capacity, maneuverability, and bite force. Our results revealed fast-evolving ecomorphological variation among populations of P. bocagei, where a direct association existed between head morphology and bite performance. However, we could not establish links between limb morphology and locomotor performance at the individual level. Lizards from walls were better climbers than those from dunes, suggesting a very fast evolutionary response. Interestingly, a significant interaction between habitat and sex was detected in climbing performance. In addition, lizards from dunes bit harder than those from walls, although sexual differentiation was definitely the main factor driving variation in head functional morphology. Taking into account all the results, we found a complex interaction between natural and sexual selection on whole-organism performance, which are, in some cases, reflected in morphological variation.     

不同负荷下生物膜脱落与载体生物膜生物特性的相互影响

为探究不同负荷下生物膜的脱落特性,对试验过程中生物膜脱落量及载体上生物膜生物特性进行了研究.结果表明:生物膜脱落量随运行时间延长而增大;有机负荷对生物膜脱落量的影响不同,负荷高脱落量大.紧密结合胞外聚合物(TB-EPS)是生物膜胞外聚合物(EPS)的主要组成部分,生物膜EPS量随负荷的增大而增大;EPS中多糖含量越高,生物膜脱落量越小.系统中pH值逐渐下降并抑制生物膜活性,生物膜脱落量随着脱氢酶活性的下降而增加,载体上生物膜脱氢酶活性也会随着生物膜脱落量的增加而下降.生物膜脱落过程中,生物膜微型动物多度、物种数减少,物种多样性水平随着运行时间延长而降低;有机负荷较高,生物膜微型动物多样性较高,物种稳定性指数WS较高而多样性稳定性指数WH较低,但其生物膜脱落量大.因子分析揭示了不同负荷下生物膜脱落与生物膜特性的相互关系,与生物膜脱落紧密相关的因子依次为生物膜组成与活性因子、生物因子、负荷因子等.生物膜脱落与载体上附着生物膜相互作用、相互影响.     

建筑间距对大气流动及输移特性影响的模拟研究

采用修正的k-ε湍流模型对不同建筑间距情况下的大气流场、污染物浓度场进行模拟研究。模拟研究结果表明,气流遇到建筑物发生绕流,风速为3m/s的气流在建筑物附近的最大抬升速度达到1.98m/s,气流绕过建筑物后湍动能增强,建筑物后污染物的扩散区域变大;建筑物的布局对气流流动和污染物浓度分布有着很大影响,在不同建筑间距情况下,建筑物尾流区的流场形态有着明显的不同,尾流区内污染物的分布也存在差别。研究结果对认识多个建筑物附近的气流和污染物分布有重要意义。     

平流层飞艇螺旋桨布局对蒙皮表面对流换热系数影响数值仿真研究

目的降低蒙皮以及囊体内部氦气的昼夜温差。方法基于成熟的CFD数值分析软件FLUENT,通过针对头部、两侧以及尾部螺旋桨布局下其尾流对于蒙皮表面气流速度分布的影响进行比较分析。结果侧部和尾部布局的螺旋桨,在来流速度15m/s条件下,经过螺旋桨的气流加速后,速度最高可达约32m/s,加速比约为2.13,会使强迫对流换热系数增加为原来的2倍。头部螺旋桨布局可提高整个飞艇外表面的速度,增强其强迫对流特性。结论螺旋桨布局在艇身两侧和尾部,可改变艇身局部区域的流场速度,增强局部热的强迫对流特性。     

高空风场对某飞行器级间分离影响研究

目的研究高空风场对飞行器飞行时级间分离的影响。方法建立飞行器分离模型,仿真计算飞行器分离时下面级的横移距离、两个关键部件之间的间隙。结果在最低飞行条件风速34 m/s时,下面级横移距离和两个关键间隙均满足设计条件。在仿真计算风速40 m/s条件下,下面级横移距离、两个关键部件间隙均满足设计要求,因此最低飞行条件风速可放宽至40 m/s。在最大风速45 m/s时,三个值均超出了设计值,有可能会对分离造成影响。结论高空风对飞行器级间分离存在一定影响,随着高空风风速的增加,面级的横移距离和两个关键部件之间键间隙随之增加。     

旋转尾翼火箭测试平台平衡滚速分析与弹道设计

目的 分析旋转尾翼对火箭测试平台平衡滚速的影响,基于旋转尾翼式火箭测试平台开展飞行弹道设计.方法 以旋转尾翼火箭测试平台为例,分析旋转尾翼、箭体和滚动轴承间的受力,建立旋转尾翼火箭测试平台箭体和尾翼滚转通道动力学模型,分析旋转尾翼不对称性、不同摩擦力系数时旋转尾翼对平台箭体平衡滚速的影响关系,并以倾斜有轨发射旋转尾翼火...     

直升机尾桨叶翼型段疲劳试验技术研究

目的 提升尾桨叶翼型段疲劳试验安装和调试速率,加快考核出尾桨叶翼型段疲劳性能和疲劳寿命。方法 通过标定出尾桨叶翼型段挥舞与摆振标定系数和预扭角,分析出一种通过理论计算出安装攻角的方法,利用理论计算出的攻角指导实际安装攻角,调整攻角值到实际加载满足试验要求的载荷值,在尾桨叶翼型段安装和调试完成后进行了疲劳试验。结果 4件尾桨叶翼型段理论计算攻角值与实际安装攻角进行对比,安装攻角理论值与实际值偏差范围在1.5°以内,并且4件尾桨叶翼型段疲劳试验载荷分布误差小于4%,疲劳性能满足6000飞行小时的疲劳寿命要求。结论 尾桨叶翼型疲劳试验中,理论计算攻角值具有加快估算安装攻角的意义,提升疲劳试验效率,试验调试载荷分布基本一致。经过尾桨叶翼型段疲劳试验验证后,试验件疲劳性能良好且稳定,为后续科研试验转入鉴定试验提供了基础。     

The evolution of the upright posture and gait—a review and a new synthesis

During the last century, approximately 30 hypotheses have been constructed to explain the evolution of the human upright posture and locomotion. The most important and recent ones are discussed here. Meanwhile, it has been established that all main hypotheses published until the last decade of the past century are outdated, at least with respect to some of their main ideas: Firstly, they were focused on only one cause for the evolution of bipedality, whereas the evolutionary process was much more complex. Secondly, they were all placed into a savannah scenario. During the 1990s, the fossil record allowed the reconstruction of emerging bipedalism more precisely in a forested habitat (e.g., as reported by Clarke and Tobias (Science 269:521–524, 1995) and WoldeGabriel et al. (Nature 412:175–178, 2001)). Moreover, the fossil remains revealed increasing evidence that this part of human evolution took place in a more humid environment than previously assumed. The Amphibian Generalist Theory, presented first in the year 2000, suggests that bipedalism began in a wooded habitat. The forests were not far from a shore, where our early ancestor, along with its arboreal habits, walked and waded in shallow water finding rich food with little investment. In contrast to all other theories, wading behaviour not only triggers an upright posture, but also forces the individual to maintain this position and to walk bipedally. So far, this is the only scenario suitable to overcome the considerable anatomical and functional threshold from quadrupedalism to bipedalism. This is consistent with paleoanthropological findings and with functional anatomy as well as with energetic calculations, and not least, with evolutionary psychology. The new synthesis presented here is able to harmonise many of the hitherto competing theories.     

不同污泥龄膜生物反应器内微生物的群落结构特征

为研究不同污泥龄MBR(膜生物反应器)内的微生物群落结构特征,构建了SRT(污泥龄)分别为10、20、40和80 d的4个平行的MBR,通过PCR-DGGE技术获得各MBR内微生物的DNA指纹图谱,并对条带进行切胶测序. 结果表明,SRT不影响MBR对废水的处理效果,不同SRT下MBR对NH₄+-N和COD_Cr的去除率均能达到90%以上. DGGE结果表明,在运行过程中,各MBR内的微生物群落结构均发生了明显变化,并且不同SRT的MBR内总细菌群落结构变化特征相同;SRT影响同一微生物在各MBR中的出现速率;总细菌Shannon-Wiener多样性指数和丰富度指数均随着SRT的增加而升高,SRT为80 d的MBR内Shannon-Wiener多样性指数最高. 测序结果表明,不同SRT的MBR内的优势种属不同,其中Arcobacter sp.、beta proteobacterium及Thiothrix sp.为不同SRT的MBR中共同存在的关键菌属,对MBR的运行起着重要作用.      

Male-biased predation of western green lizards by Eurasian kestrels

Selective predation can be an important force driving the evolution of organisms. In particular, sex-biased predation is expected to have implications for sexual selection, sex allocation and population dynamics. In this study, we analysed sex differences in the predation of the western green lizard (Lacerta bilineata) by the Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) during the reproductive season. In addition, we investigated whether the rate of predation differed during the 8-year study period and among the three habitats studied. We collected lizard remains from nest boxes of kestrels. Freshly killed lizards were sexed by visual inspection, whilst the sex of head remains was assigned by analysing the cephalic scale morphology using geometric morphometrics. Our results show that the risk of being predated by a kestrel in our population was overall about 3.55 times higher for males than for females. To our knowledge this is the first study showing a male-biased predation in a lizard species. The selective predation of males was consistent between years over the 8-year study period (1999-2006) and also consistent between the three types of kestrel hunting habitat. Overall predation rates on lizards differed between habitats, depending on the year. We propose that the observed sex-biased predation is mainly due to sex differences in lizard behaviour.     

Fish survival on fine mesh traveling screens

The survival of fish impinged on 1-mm mesh Ristroph-type traveling screens was evaluated at Somerset Station, a 625-MW coal-fired electric generating station located on the south shore of Lake Ontario. Somerset Station was designed and built with an offshore intake, discharge and fish return system. Survival testing was conducted over a 4-year period that included all four seasons. Test fish were diverted from the fish return and held for 96 h for observation. Following observation, a specially constructed screening table was used to differentiate test fish that typically would have been impinged on a standard 9.5-mm mesh screen from smaller individuals that typically would be entrained. Twenty-eight species were tested, and collections were dominated by five species: alewife, emerald shiner, gizzard shad, rainbow smelt, and spottail shiner. Survival rates commonly approached or exceeded 80%, and were influenced by species, fish size or life stage, season and fish condition. Results are interpreted in terms of survival rates demonstrated elsewhere for entrained fish and fish impinged on alternative traveling screen technologies.     

Voluntary exercise at the expense of reproductive success in Djungarian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus)

Energy demands of gestation and lactation represent a severe challenge for small mammals. Therefore, additional energetic burdens may compromise successful breeding. In small rodents, food restriction, cold exposure (also in combination) and wheel running to obtain food have been shown to diminish reproductive outcome. Although exhibited responses such as lower incidence of pregnancy, extended lactation periods and maternal infanticide were species dependent, their common function is to adjust energetic costs to the metabolic state reflecting the trade-off between maternal investment and self-maintenance. In the present study, we sought to examine whether voluntary exercise affects reproduction in Djungarian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus), which are known for their high motivation to run in a wheel. Voluntary exercise resulted in two different effects on reproduction; in addition to increased infanticide and cannibalism, which was evident across all experiments, the results of one experiment provided evidence that free access to a running wheel may prevent successful pregnancy. It seems likely that the impact of voluntary wheel running on reproduction was associated with a reduction of internal energy resources evoked by extensive exercise. Since the hamsters were neither food-restricted nor forced to run in the present study, an energetic deficit as reason for infanticide in exercising dams would emphasise the particularly high motivation to run in a wheel.     

Cross-habitat variation in the phenology of a colonial spider: insights from a reciprocal transplant study

In species with widespread distribution, populations found in markedly different environments can show differences in developmental traits. This, in time, can have an effect on reproductive success. Sources of variation in developmental traits can be genetic or environmentally induced. I examined the relationship between environmental and genetic influences on juvenile development in populations of the colonial spider, Parawixia bistriata, located at sites with different moisture regimes and associated environmental variables (e.g., prey availability). It was expected that individuals from different populations would show differences in developmental traits and that those differences will be associated with lower reproductive success at dry sites. I recorded the phenology and developmental traits of native and transplanted individuals in the field and estimated reproductive success based on clutch size. Colonies from wet versus dry sites showed different phenologies, with individuals at dry sites maturing later. Transplant results suggest plasticity in instar duration caused by environmental effects. Despite differences in resources and spider phenology, clutch sizes of native dry and wet populations were similar. Transplanted individuals, however, were differentially affected. Transplants from wet to dry sites (WD) showed lower growth rates and smaller clutches, whereas transplants from dry to wet sites had larger clutch sizes than in native habitat. Delayed maturation and failure to reproduce in WD individuals is associated with a lower tendency to capture prey in groups and less aggressive interactions during prey capture. Thus, despite negative environmental effects on development, dry native individuals have evolved non-developmental traits that allow successful reproduction.     

鄱阳湖枯水期沉积物磷释放特征及对水位变化响应

通过研究鄱阳湖枯水期不同高程沉积物磷释放热力学和动力学特征,试图建立沉积物磷释放与水位间响应关系,进一步揭示由于江湖关系变化导致的水位下降对鄱阳湖沉积物磷释放风险影响.结果表明:(1)鄱阳湖沉积物高程越高,即出露时间越长,中部和"五河"尾闾区沉积物EC0、DTP、DOP和SRP最大释放量及初始释放速率(0~5 min释放速率)越大,而北部湖区因采砂活动等影响,变化不明显.(2)鄱阳湖水位的持续下降引起的沉积物出露时间延长和出露面积增加,导致全湖沉积物DTP、DOP和SRP最大释放量分别增加了91、81和34 t,虽然该增加量对全湖磷负荷贡献较小(占外源P输入负荷的4.1%、3.7%和1.5%),但"五河"尾闾区沉积物磷释放增加强度为全湖平均值的3倍,意味着随江湖关系的持续变化,来年丰水期鄱阳湖沉积物磷将会集中释放,尤其是"五河"尾闾区等重点敏感区域,其沉积物磷释放量的增加将进一步加大鄱阳湖局部湖区水质下降风险.