Consumption-based accounting of CO2 emissions in the sustainable development Goals Agenda

In 2017 the paper ‘The Sustainable Development Oxymoron: Quantifying and Modelling the Incompatibility of Sustainable Development Goals’ was published, showing that there is a conflict between socio-economic development goals and ecological sustainability goals using cross-country time-series data. The authors looked at production-based CO2 emissions to measure and model the 13^th SDG goal addressing climate change. Their models showed that production-based CO2 emissions were stalling or even decreasing in rich countries, which suggests that other countries are also likely to see stalling and decrease in their CO2 emissions once they become rich. However, this conclusion can be challenged when accounting for consumption-based CO2 emissions rather than production-based CO2 emissions. In this follow-up paper, we re-run some of the analyses performed in the original paper making use of consumption-based CO2 emissions. The analysis confirms the inherent SDG conflict between socio-economic and ecological SDGs. But, this new analysis demonstrates that from a consumption perspective the trend of stalling or decreasing CO2 emissions is reversed, with natural depletion costs being exported to poorer countries. Despite this new perspective on CO2 emissions, the conflict between SDG goals can still be avoided by making investments in public health, education and renewable energy, as suggested in the original paper.     

Hybrid Bottom Line: another perspective on the sustainability of organizations

In recent years, there has been a growing concern and an increasing number of proactive initiatives from various stakeholders on issues related to the environment, social matters, and economic aspects and this has been the main driving force toward sustainability. However, most players that are deeply involved with environmental and social agendas indicate that these actions have been more of a temporary palliative for the current unsustainability problems than real structural solutions, especially in what concerns the relationship between short-term actions and long-term structural planning. Even though the general literature on sustainability is comprehensive, there is a paucity of papers which look at it at the organizational level, and under a cross-sectoral perspective. This paper is an attempt to address this gap. It presents the concept of ‘Hybrid Bottom Line’ as a new perspective in understanding and sustainability at the organizational level.     

Disarming the population bomb

This paper argues for a renewed international focus on managed population reduction as a key enabler of sustainable development. The paper presents development data that demonstrate why population reduction should be elevated to share top priority with poverty alleviation, as the two over-arching goals of international development strategy. The critical analysis put forth in this paper argues that the current ‘unsustainable’ approach to sustainable development stems from (1) ‘empty world’ economic growth theory applied to a ‘full world’, which is (2) supported and driven by socioeconomic incentives to expand population, (3) justified through flawed interpretation of demographic transition theory, (4) bolstered by the exaggerated efficacy of environmental economic theory applied in a resource-constrained world, (5) insulated from challenge by limitations of scientific knowledge and (6) perpetuated by herd behavior. This paper concludes that failure to reduce global population will inhibit attainment of poverty alleviation and worsen environmental degradation.     

Gesellschaftlicher Wandel und nachhaltige Entwicklung

Background, aim, and scope In order to assess the effects of social change from the point of view of sustainability the article considers demographic, social and cultural developments. Taking the sectors ‘Building and Housing’, ‘Infrastructure Systems’ and ‘Mobility and Transport’ as examples, it outlines visible trends and describes the possible scope for actions and instruments to achieving sustainably social change. Main features Demographic change, social-cultural change, extent of social change in Schleswig-Holstein, the sectors ‘Building and Housing’, ‘Infrastructure Systems’, and ‘Mobility and Transport’, environmental impact of social change. Results From the point of view of sustainability the essential kriterion is not so much the size of the population in absolute terms as consumer habits, which are subject to numerous influences. One important characteristic of the evolution from the industrial to the post-industrial society is a pluralization of lifestyles, with the associated consumption patterns, in sectors relevant to sustainability. Discussion A diversity of technologies is available for reducing the environmental burden. They influence thermal insulation of buildings, electricity and water sparing, domestic appliances and fuel-efficient vehicles with controlled catalytic converters. The use of these technologies rather depends on cultural and economic trends as well as political decisions than on technical feasibility. Conclusions If no actions occur to counteract them, the effects of social change on the environment will be immense. There will be no ‘demographic benefit’, and neither can the sustainability balance of the postmaterialists be considered more favourable than that of people with a materialistic attitude. Recommendations and perspectives Political groups should address the problems raised by social change, analyze their effects and initiate a comprehensive social process of dialogue and agreement with the players concerned. Quick solutions are not to be expected, since the complexity of the subject, the different interests involved and the large numbers of issues to be regulated require perseverance and a time frame that goes beyond a single legislative period.     

Holistic correlation of world’s largest social safety net and its outcomes with Sustainable Development Goals

The five largest social safety net (SSN) programmes in the world are being implemented in India, China and Brazil. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is one of these programmes and regarded as the world’s largest SSN. MGNREGA aims at enhancing livelihood security of households in rural India by providing guaranteed wage employment. The scheme has resulted in the creation of sustainable assets that promote the economic and infrastructure development. More than 33 million assets were built in the process of MGNREGA. These assets were spread out in 262,380 smallest units of administration covering 6887 sub-districts with the participation of more than 250 million human manpower. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) aims to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity. The 17 goals tackle the root cause of poverty and attempts to make a positive change for both people and planet. Ecological regeneration or rejuvenation during the development of the assets generated numerous tangible and intangible benefits to the community in a sustainable way. MGNREGA, a federal government-sponsored scheme, using a decentralized approach is directly or indirectly helping to achieve all the 17 goals of sustainable development in India. This article takes a holistic approach to correlate and map the concepts and outcomes of MGNREGA programme with SDG. This article emphasises the fact that community-based participation in the planning and development activities at the regional levels will yield benefits to the biosphere, society and economy at the national level.     

Prioritising development planning in the Indian semi-arid Deccan using sustainable livelihood security index approach

This paper presents the status of sustainable livelihood security index (SLSI) of Karnataka, the most drought prone state in the Southern part of India. Computation of ecological security index, economic efficiency index and social equity index, and finally SLSI were carried out at the district level for the entire state, using empirical data. The selected indicators were first normalised, and then using estimated weights, indices were computed. The results indicate that the state has a very low SLSI with only 27.6% of total geographical area (TGA) and 21.7% of population being placed in the ‘sustainable’ and ‘highly sustainable’ categories (covering 10 districts) while only 34% of the TGA covering six districts falls in the ‘moderately sustainable’ category. The remaining area, confined mostly to the northern parts of the state, comprising 14 districts (51.8% of the state’s TGA) is categorised as ‘less sustainable’ and ‘very less sustainable’ exposing 44.4% (27.14 million) of state’s population to the perils of uncertain rainfall, high soil erosion rates, high social inequality and poor resource use efficiency. There is an urgent need to reorient development programmes and prioritise development investments in these vulnerable districts so that they are provided resources and opportunities to improve their ecological (more forest cover and less soil erosion), economic (higher agricultural productivity) and social (improved health and education facilities and rural infrastructure) status and achieve sustainable levels of livelihood.     

Compassionate versus consequentialist conservation

Ethical treatment of wildlife and consideration of animal welfare have become important themes in conservation, but ethical perspectives on how best to protect wild animals and promote their welfare are diverse. There are advantages to the consequentialist harms ethical framework applied in managing wild herbivores for conservation purposes. To minimize harms while achieving conservation goals, we argue that overabundant wild herbivores should in many cases be managed through consumptive in situ killing. Advantages of this policy are that the negative welfare states imposed on animals last only a short time; remaining animals are not deprived of positive welfare states (e.g., linked to rearing offspring); poor welfare states of animals in overabundant populations are avoided (e.g., starvation); negative welfare impacts on heterospecifics through resource depletion (i.e., competition) are prevented; harvesting meat reduces the number of (agricultural) animals raised to supply meat; and minimal costs maximize funding for other wildlife management and conservation priorities. Alternative ethical approaches to our consequentialist framework include deontology (containing animal rights) and virtue ethics, some of which underpin compassionate conservation. These alternative ethical approaches emphasize the importance of avoiding intentional killing of animals but, if no population reduction occurs, are likely to impose considerable unintentional harms on overabundant wildlife and indirectly harm heterospecifics through ineffective population reduction. If nonlethal control is used, it is likely that overabundant animals would be deprived of positive welfare states and economic costs would be prohibitive. We encourage conservation stakeholders to consider animal-welfare consequentialism as an ethical approach to minimize harms to the animals under their care as well as other animals that policies may affect while at the same time pursuing conservation goals.     

Wasserrahmenrichtlinie — Fortschritte und Defizite

Background

The water protection policy of the European Union sits on new footings since the end of 2000: The Water FrameworkDirective (WFD). By replacing, merging and renewing all parts of the European water protection policy from the 1970s, the WFD provides a consistent, transparent and comprehensive concept of what water management should be in the Europe of the coming decades. The new directive is aimed at a holistic approach towards integrated water protection. It sets ambitious high-quality goals to achieve a good status for European lakes and rivers primarily in ecological terms, gives details about the essential processes as well as instruments, and includes everything into a strict time schedule.

Aim

This article adresses progress and shortcomings at the implementation of the WFD in general and with reference to two selected case studies (Rivers Elbe and Upper Danube).

Results and Discussion

After introducing the WFD, its aims and exceptions, a policy summary and background document ‘Environmental objectives und the Water Framework Directive’ and the use of Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) for single ‘priority substances’ as well as ‘hazardous priority components’ is discussed. The initial characterization undertaken by the German states revealed that only about 14% of all surface waters are considered to meet the WFD objectives by the year of 2015. Approximately 60% of the water bodies assessed are at risk of failing the WFD objectives, if not systematic efforts are made to improve the quality. Screenings of sources and paths of exposure for ‘priority substances’ and ‘priority hazardous substances’ according WFD identified one distinct pollution source for surface waters: ‘Historical pollution from sediments’. Because of industrial emissions in the past several river catchment areas are expected to fail the standards demanded by the WFD, due to a risk of remobilization of contaminants from sediments. This holds true for the Rhine river with high loads of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) as well as for Elbe river, where contaminated sediments can be a severe problem. Therefore, integration of sediments into the holistic river basin management approach and their consideration within the ‘programmes of measures’ scheduled for 2009 is highly recommended. At present, a comprehensive weight-of-evidence study verifies whether the observed fish decline at the Upper Danube. River is caused by ecotoxicological hazard potentials of contaminated sediments.

Outlook

Combined investigations of sediment contamination and mobility as well as acute and mechanism specific biotests in effect directed analyses/weight-of-evidence studies show grent potential for the assessment of chemically polluted rivers and should be included into the ‘programmes of measures’ within future management concepts.

     

Some for all,forever — sustainable development and management of water resources

SUMMARY

The notion of sustainable development in the context of water resources is discussed. Facing the increasing pressures — population growth with consequences for settlements and production of food and fibre, and human aspirations to better living standards — the business-as-usual approach to water development and management cannot he globally sustainable. The need for curbing water demands and for ‘doing more with less’ are gaining growing recognition in our increasingly thirsty planet. An integrated approach to freshwater resources is needed, based on the perception of water as a natural resource, part of the ecosystem, and an economic and social good. It is discussed how hydrological extremes jeopardize sustainable development. Sustainability-related properties of drought and flood preparedness and mitigation measures are reviewed. Even if the term ‘sustainable development’ has been typically used in a qualitative sense, in order to compare how different options (e.g. flood protection alternatives) fare with regard to sustainable development, one needs at least rough quantitative measures. A sample of relevant indices is reviewed. It is advocated that hydrological observations should be recognized as an essential component of sustainable development and management of water resources.     

Effects of economics and demographics on global fisheries sustainability

A good understanding of social factors that lead to marine ecological change is important to developing sustainable global fisheries. We used balanced panel models and conducted cross‐national time‐series analyses (1970–2010) of 122 nations to examine how economic prosperity and population growth affected the sustainability of marine ecosystems. We used catches in economic exclusive zone (EEZ); mean trophic level of fishery landings (MTL); primary production required to sustain catches (expressed as percentage of local primary production [%PPR]); and an index of ecosystem overfishing (i.e., the loss in secondary production index [L index]) as indicators of ecological change in marine ecosystems. The EEZ catch, %PPR, and L index declined gradually after gross domestic product (GDP) per capita reached $15,000, $14,000, and $19,000, respectively, and MTL increased steadily once GDP per capita exceeded $20,000. These relationships suggest that economic growth and biodiversity conservation are compatible goals. However, increasing human populations would degrade marine ecosystems. Specifically, a doubling of human population caused an increase in the %PPR of 17.1% and in the L index of 0.0254 and a decline in the MTL of 0.176. A 1% increase in human population resulted in a 0.744% increase in EEZ catch. These results highlight the importance of considering social and economic factors in developing sustainable fisheries management policy.     

Economic Growth and Marine Biodiversity: Influence of Human Social Structure on Decline of Marine Trophic Levels

Abstract:  We assessed the effects of economic growth, urbanization, and human population size on marine biodiversity. We used the mean trophic level (MTL) of marine catch as an indicator of marine biodiversity and conducted cross-national time-series analyses (1960–2003) of 102 nations to investigate human social influences on fish catch and trends in MTL. We constructed path models to examine direct and indirect effects relating to marine catch and MTL. Nations' MTLs declined with increased economic growth, increased urbanization, and increased population size, in part because of associated increased catch. These findings contradict the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis, which claims that economic modernization will reduce human impact on the environment. To make informed decisions on issues of marine resource management, policy makers, nonprofit entities, and professional societies must recognize the need to include social analyses in overall conservation-research strategies. The challenge is to utilize the socioeconomic and ecological research in the service of a comprehensive marine-conservation movement.     

Equity trade‐offs in conservation decision making

Conservation decisions increasingly involve multiple environmental and social objectives, which result in complex decision contexts with high potential for trade‐offs. Improving social equity is one such objective that is often considered an enabler of successful outcomes and a virtuous ideal in itself. Despite its idealized importance in conservation policy, social equity is often highly simplified or ill‐defined and is applied uncritically. What constitutes equitable outcomes and processes is highly normative and subject to ethical deliberation. Different ethical frameworks may lead to different conceptions of equity through alternative perspectives of what is good or right. This can lead to different and potentially conflicting equity objectives in practice. We promote a more transparent, nuanced, and pluralistic conceptualization of equity in conservation decision making that particularly recognizes where multidimensional equity objectives may conflict. To help identify and mitigate ethical conflicts and avoid cases of good intentions producing bad outcomes, we encourage a more analytical incorporation of equity into conservation decision making particularly during mechanistic integration of equity objectives. We recommend that in conservation planning motivations and objectives for equity be made explicit within the problem context, methods used to incorporate equity objectives be applied with respect to stated objectives, and, should objectives dictate, evaluation of equity outcomes and adaptation of strategies be employed during policy implementation.     

The sustainable development oxymoron: quantifying and modelling the incompatibility of sustainable development goals

ABSTRACT

In 2015, the UN adopted a new set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to eradicate poverty, establish socioeconomic inclusion and protect the environment. Critical voices such as the International Council for Science (ICSU), however, have expressed concerns about the potential incompatibility of the SDGs, specifically the incompatibility of socio-economic development and environmental sustainability. In this paper, we test, quantify and model the alleged inconsistency of SDGs. Our analyses show which SDGs are consistent and which are conflicting. We measure the extent of inconsistency and conclude that the SDG agenda will fail as a whole if we continue with business as usual. We further explore the nature of the inconsistencies using dynamical systems models, which reveal that the focus on economic growth and consumption as a means for development underlies the inconsistency. Our models also show that there are factors which can contribute to development (health programmes, government investment) on the one hand and ecological sustainability (renewable energy) on the other, without triggering the conflict between incompatible SDGs.     

A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas

Protected areas (PAs) are a key strategy for protecting biological resources, but they vary considerably in their effectiveness and are frequently reported as having negative impacts on local people. This has contributed to a divisive and unresolved debate concerning the compatibility of environmental and socioeconomic development goals. Elucidating the relationship between positive and negative social impacts and conservation outcomes of PAs is key for the development of more effective and socially just conservation. We conducted a global meta‐analysis on 165 PAs using data from 171 published studies. We assessed how PAs affect the well‐being of local people, the factors associated with these impacts, and crucially the relationship between PAs’ conservation and socioeconomic outcomes. Protected areas associated with positive socioeconomic outcomes were more likely to report positive conservation outcomes. Positive conservation and socioeconomic outcomes were more likely to occur when PAs adopted comanagement regimes, empowered local people, reduced economic inequalities, and maintained cultural and livelihood benefits. Whereas the strictest regimes of PA management attempted to exclude anthropogenic influences to achieve biological conservation objectives, PAs that explicitly integrated local people as stakeholders tended to be more effective at achieving joint biological conservation and socioeconomic development outcomes. Strict protection may be needed in some circumstances, yet our results demonstrate that conservation and development objectives can be synergistic and highlight management strategies that increase the probability of maximizing both conservation performance and development outcomes of PAs.     

Practical Implications of Understanding the Influence of Motivations on Commitment to Voluntary Urban Conservation Stewardship

Although the word commitment is prevalent in conservation biology literature and despite the importance of people's commitment to the success of conservation initiatives, commitment as a psychological phenomenon and its operation in specific conservation behaviors remains unexplored. Despite increasing calls for conservation psychology to play a greater role in meeting conservation goals, applications of the psychological sciences to specific conservation behaviors, illustrating their utility to conservation practice, are rare. We examined conservation volunteers’ motivations and commitment to urban conservation volunteering. We interviewed key informant volunteers and used interview findings to develop psychometric scales that we used to assess motivations and commitment to volunteer. We surveyed 322 urban conservation volunteers and used factor analysis to reveal how volunteers structure their motivations and commitment to volunteer for urban conservation activities. Six categories of motivations and 2 categories of commitment emerged from factor analysis. Volunteers were motivated by desires to help the environment, defend and enhance the ego, career and learning opportunities, escape and exercise, social interactions, and community building. Two forms of commitment, affective and normative commitment, psychologically bind people to urban conservation volunteerism. We used linear‐regression models to examine how these categories of motivations influence volunteers’ commitment to conservation volunteerism. Volunteers’ tendency to continue to volunteer for urban conservation, even in the face of fluctuating counter urges, was motivated by personal, social, and community functions more than environmental motivations. The environment, otherwise marginally important, was a significant motivator of volunteers’ commitment only when volunteering met volunteers’ personal, social, and community‐building goals. Attention to these personal, social, and community‐building motivations may help enhance volunteers’ commitment to conservation stewardship and address the pressing challenge of retaining urban conservation volunteers. Implicaciones Prácticas del Entendimiento de la Influencia de Motivaciones sobre el Compromiso de Voluntarios de Conservación Urbana Asah & Blahna     

What are heavy metals? Long-standing controversy over the scientific use of the term ‘heavy metals’ – proposal of a comprehensive definition

The term ‘heavy metals’ is commonly used in the environmental literature to refer to metals and metalloids associated with environmental pollution, toxicity and adverse effects on biota. The term has been diversely defined, mostly in terms of density, relative atomic mass and atomic number. This diversity of definitions has raised questions about the nomenclature of these elements. The inclusion of the metalloid As and the nonmetal Se with heavy metals is also an important issue. Some people have called the term as meaningless, imprecise and poorly defined and have suggested abandoning the use of the term. The term itself may not be problematic but the careless and inconsistent use of terminology has led to a confusion about the meaning of the term. The use of the term may be continued but it should be defined in a more comprehensive and scientific way. Here, a more comprehensive definition of the term ‘heavy metals’ is suggested as ‘naturally occurring metals having atomic number (Z) greater than 20 and an elemental density greater than 5 g cm^?3.’ A screening of the Periodic Table according to this definition yields 51 elements to be called ‘heavy metals.’ As and Se are excluded from heavy metals.     

Measuring sustainable governance in the European Union

This paper examines the problem of measuring sustainable governance in the European Union (EU-27) through the use of duality and the Slutsky equation. The proposed methodology is based on the application of a three-dimensional optimisation model, where the arguments of the objective (sustainable social welfare) function are economic goods that contribute to sustainable economic growth; environmental goods that provide for sustainable environmental protection; and social goods through which sustainable social development is achieved. The dual problem, formulated through this three-dimensional theoretical model, is solved to find the optimal solution, indicating a certain sustainability level. We suggest that this solution can be used for calculating the value of what we define here as the sustainable governmental policy indicator, which is considered to provide quantitative measurement of government policies on sustainable development within the context of ‘good governance’. Furthermore, it is suggested that the Slutsky equation can be used as a reliable method for long-term monitoring and planning of national as well as international good governance with regard to sustainable development policies. In its empirical part, the paper applies the theoretical model in an analysis of the sustainable development indicators (as set out in the Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) of the EU) in Bulgaria for the period 2000–2010 and compares them to those of the EU-27.     

Managing conflicts between economic activities and threatened migratory marine species toward creating a multiobjective blue economy

Harnessing the economic potential of the oceans is key to combating poverty, enhancing food security, and strengthening economies. But the concomitant risk of intensified resource extraction to migratory species is worrying given these species contribute to important ecological processes, often underpin alternative livelihoods, and are mostly already threatened. We thus sought to quantify the potential conflict between key economic activities (5 fisheries and hydrocarbon exploitation) and sea turtle migration corridors in a region with rapid economic development: southern and eastern Africa. We satellite tracked the movement of 20 loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and 14 leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) turtles during their postnesting migrations. We used movement‐based kernel density estimation to identify migration corridors for each species. We overlaid these corridors on maps of the distribution and intensity of economic activities, quantified the extent of overlap and threat posed by each activity on each species, and compared the effects of activities. These results were compared with annual bycatch rates in the respective fisheries. Both species’ 3 corridors overlapped most with longline fishing, but the effect was worse for leatherbacks: their bycatch rates of approximately 1500/year were substantial relative to the regional population size of <100 nesting females/annum. This bycatch rate is likely slowing population growth. Artisanal fisheries may be of greater concern for loggerheads than for leatherbacks, but the population appears to be withstanding the high bycatch rates because it is increasing exponentially. The hydrocarbon industry currently has a moderately low impact on both species, but mining in key areas (e.g., Southern Mozambique) may undermine >50 years of conservation, potentially affecting >80% of loggerheads, 33% of the (critically endangered) leatherbacks, and their nesting beaches. We support establishing blue economies (i.e., generating wealth from the ocean), but oceans need to be carefully zoned and responsibly managed in both space and time to achieve economic (resource extraction), ecological (conservation, maintenance of processes), and social (maintenance of alternative livelihood opportunities, alleviate poverty) objectives.     

Agent-based framework for modeling and simulation of resources in self-sustainable human settlements: a case study on water management in an eco-village community in Croatia

A newly developed agent-based framework for modeling, simulation, and evaluation of resource management in self-sustainable human settlements is presented, along with the ability of the framework to prolong the self-sustainability of the observed human settlement system in the simulation environment. In this study the focus is on the analysis of a conducted water management simulation based on observations of an existing eco-village in Croatia, in the context of producing, storing, and consuming water as a resource. The conducted research shows that the developed framework was able to prolong the self-sustainability of localized water production, storage, and consumption dynamics when managing the water allocation with the use of self-sustainability mechanisms, in comparison to water management without using such mechanisms, under the same initial conditions. The work is placed within the context of sustainable development, Internet of Things, as well as Environmental Internet of Things areas of research, analyzing the ambiguous relationship between the terms ‘sustainable development’ and ‘self-sustainability’.