水体富营养化问题中外政策措施透析

富营养化问题正在污染地球上宝贵的饮用水资源。因此,防治和解决富营养化问题是全球的一项紧急任务。早在上个世纪,很多欧洲国家在富营养化的控制方面已经做了很多研究,尤其是对欧盟的立法与国家政策方面的研究。目前,很多欧洲国家都建立了相对完善的综合政策。中国太湖也面临着严重的水体富营养化问题。文章选取荷兰和英国作为案例分析,通过与太湖水体富营养化防治中存在的问题的对比和分析,提出一些可行性建议,对太湖水域的该问题的缓解起到一定的借鉴作用。     

水体富营养化问题中外政策措施透析

富营养化问题正在污染地球上宝贵的饮用水资源.因此,防治和解决富营养化问题是全球的一项紧急任务.早在上个世纪,很多欧洲国家在富营养化的控制方面已经做了很多研究,尤其是对欧盟的立法与国家政策方面的研究.目前,很多欧洲国家都建立了相对完善的综合政策.中国太湖也面临着严重的水体富营养化问题.文章选取荷兰和英国作为案例分析,通过与太湖水体富营养化防治中存在的问题的对比和分析,提出一些可行性建议,对太湖水域的该问题的缓解起到一定的借鉴作用.     

城市温室气体清单评价研究

城市消费了大量的能源,是全球人类活动温室气体的最大排放源,在应对气候变化中起到关键作用.城市温室气体清单评价成为重要的基础性工作,对于制定城市减排目标和计划、评估减排措施效果具有重要的意义.然而,城市开放的空间系统结构导致城市温室气体清单核算面临许多困难和挑战.本文对国内外城市温室气体清单方法和案例进行了回顾与展望,研究内容主要集中在比较城市清单和国家清单方法、联系和区别,分析清单编制的不确定性,在此基础上提出可借鉴的经验与启示,以期推动我国城市温室气体清单研究发展.     

Multiple-pollutant cost-effectiveness of greenhouse gas mitigation measures in the UK agriculture

This paper develops multiple-pollutant marginal abatement cost curve analysis to identify an optimal set of greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation measures considering the trade-offs and synergies with other environmental pollutants. The analysis is applied to UK agriculture, a sector expected to make a contribution to the national GHG mitigation effort. Previous analyses using marginal abatement cost curves (MACCs) have determined the sector's GHG abatement potential based on the cost-effectiveness of a variety of technically feasible mitigation measures. Most of these measures have external effects on other pollution loads arising from agricultural activities. Here the monetary values of four of the most important impacts to water and air (specifically ammonia, nitrate, phosphorous and sediment) are included in the cost-effectiveness analysis. The resulting multiple-pollutant marginal abatement cost curve (MP MACC) informs the design of sustainable climate change policies by showing how the MP MACC for the UK agriculture can differ from the GHG MACC. The analysis also highlights research gaps, and suggests a need to understand the wider environmental effects of GHG mitigation options and to reduce the uncertainty in pollutant damage cost estimates.     

Towards mitigation of greenhouse gases by small changes in farming practices: understanding local barriers in Spain

Small changes in agricultural practices have a large potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, the implementation of such practices at the local level is often limited by a range of barriers. Understanding the barriers is essential for defining effective measures, the actual mitigation potential of the measures, and the policy needs to ensure implementation. Here we evaluate behavioural, cultural, and policy barriers for implementation of mitigation practices at the local level that imply small changes to farmers. The choice of potential mitigation practices relevant to the case study is based on a literature review of previous empirical studies. Two methods that include the stakeholders’ involvement (experts and farmers) are undertaken for the prioritization of these potential practices: (a) Multi-criteria analysis (MCA) of the choices of an expert panel and (b) Analysis of barriers to implementation based on a survey of farmers. The MCA considers two future climate scenarios – current climate and a drier and warmer climate scenario. Results suggest that all potential selected practices are suitable for mitigation considering multiple criteria in both scenarios. Nevertheless, if all the barriers for implementation had the same influence, the preferred mitigation practices in the case study would be changes in fertilization management and use of cover crops. The identification of barriers for the implementation of the practices is based on the econometric analysis of surveys given to farmers. Results show that farmers’ environmental concerns, financial incentives and access to technical advice are the main factors that define their barriers to implementation. These results may contribute to develop effective mitigation policy to be included in the 2020 review of the European Union Common Agricultural Policy.     

An empirical analysis of energy efficiency measures applicable to cities,regions, and local governments,based on the case of South Korea’s local energy saving program

As highlighted in the outcome of the Paris Agreement at the 21st Conference of Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change there has been a recent push for the stronger mitigation actions of cities, regions, and local governments. Energy efficiency is a tool that can be leveraged by not only industry or national governments but also cities, regions, and local governments for mitigation purposes. However, studies on energy efficiency as a mitigation tool thus far have focused on the national or transnational scale, and on certain sectors of industry. The purpose of this paper is to find the most cost-efficient energy efficiency measures (EEMs) at the city, region, and local government level. To that end, this paper examines the yearly energy savings and greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction intensity, as well as energy savings and GHG reduction efficiency, in the case of EEMs conducted by South Korean local governments. Yearly energy savings intensity and GHG reduction intensity are estimated to be in the range of 0.094～0.375 tonne of oil equivalent (TOE)/M-KRW (million Korean won) and 0.287～1.180 tCO2e/M-KRW. Results show that inverter installation at water and sewage treatment plants and improvement of pump efficiency are the most cost-efficient EEMs. Moreover, energy savings efficiency and GHG reduction efficiency are within the range of 18.29～45.31 %, at an average of 30.5 % GHG reduction potential. If this reduction potential is applied to the buildings and facilities regulated and run by cities/local governments, there is a worldwide reduction potential of 1.023 billion tCO₂ compared to 2020 business as usual levels.     

Efficiency of stormwater control measures for combined sewer retrofitting under varying rain conditions: Quantifying the Three Points Approach (3PA)

We present a method to assess and communicate the efficiency of stormwater control measures for retrofitting existing urban areas. The tool extends the Three Points Approach to quantitatively distinguish three rainfall domains: (A) rainwater resource utilisation, (B) urban stormwater drainage pipe design, and (C) pluvial flood mitigation. Methods for calculating efficiencies are defined recognizing that rainfall is both a valuable resource and a potential problem. Efficiencies are quantified in relation to rainfall volume, supplied potable water volume and volume of wastewater treated. A case study from Denmark is used to illustrate how the efficiency varies between the rainfall domains. The method provides a means for communicating some important quantitative aspects of stormwater control measures among engineers, planners and decision makers working with management of water resources, stormwater drainage and flood risks.     

北京市水资源领域适应气候变化对策及保障措施探讨

气候变化问题日益凸显。应对和适应气候变化刻不容缓。然而,短期内无法有效减缓气候变化产生的不利影响。因此,有必要针对不同领域制定相应的适应措施来提高人们对气候变化的适应能力。北京作为人口众多的大城市及我国的缺水城市之一,气候变化无疑将加剧水资源的供需矛盾。本文针对北京市水资源现状及气候变化对北京市水资源领域已经形成的影响,从自然、工程、政策制度三个角度探讨了北京市水资源领域适应气候变化可采取的对策及保障措施。     

The impact of climate change mitigation on water demand for energy and food: An integrated analysis based on the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways

Climate change mitigation, in the context of growing population and ever increasing economic activity, will require a transformation of energy and agricultural systems, posing significant challenges to global water resources. We use an integrated modelling framework of the water-energy-land-climate systems to assess how changes in electricity and land use, induced by climate change mitigation, impact on water demand under alternative socioeconomic (Shared Socioeconomic Pathways) and water policy assumptions (irrigation of bioenergy crops, cooling technologies for electricity generation). The impacts of climate change mitigation on cumulated global water demand across the century are highly uncertain, and depending on socioeconomic and water policy conditions, they range from a reduction of 15,000 km³ to an increase of more than 160,000 km³. The impact of irrigation of bioenergy crops is the most prominent factor, leading to significantly higher water requirements under climate change mitigation if bioenergy crops are irrigated. Differences in socioeconomic drivers and fossil fuel availability result in significant differences in electricity and bioenergy demands, in the associated electricity and primary energy mixes, and consequently in water demand. Economic affluence and abundance of fossil fuels aggravate pressures on water resources due to higher energy demand and greater deployment of water intensive technologies such as bioenergy and nuclear power. The evolution of future cooling systems is also identified as an important determinant of electricity water demand. Climate policy can result in a reduction of water demand if combined with policies on irrigation of bioenergy, and the deployment of non-water-intensive electricity sources and cooling types.     

A retrospective evaluation of 316(b) mitigation options using a decision analysis framework

Choosing the best 316(b) mitigation option is a daunting task. Decision analysis (DA) provides an objective framework that can be used to choose among several mitigation strategies where there are multiple objectives and numerous uncertainties. This paper has two objectives: (1) to illustrate the use of the DA framework for making a 316(b) decision (using the Chalk Point Power Station as a case study); and (2) to show that DA is also useful for quantifying the benefits of a previous decision. The Chalk Point case, resolved in 1990, centered around the mitigation of adverse environmental impacts of a cooling water intake structure (CWIS) as a result of fish and blue crab losses associated with impingement and entrainment. Barrier nets and fishery enhancement programs were used to mitigate the losses. We compare the costs and benefits of the mitigation options actually employed to those of other options. The costs and benefits were estimated numerically using standard DA methods. Valuations and probabilities were derived largely by professional judgment based upon the original Chalk Point 316(b) studies and ongoing monitoring. DA indicated that the optimal strategy and expected utility were functions of the weighting of environmental benefits relative to cost.     

河流污染治理任务路线图制定方法及其在海河流域的应用

针对河流水污染治理的长期性、复杂性和系统性要求,参考技术路线图的制定原则和一般步骤,吸纳制定重要领域科技路线图的系统方法,从需求分析、任务布局、特征目标界定、实施阶段和技术重点等方面,建立了制定河流治理路线图的一般方法,并在海河流域开展应用研究,分析了海河流域河流水污染治理的问题和需求、确定了治理的战略任务,确立了水污染治理的特征目标,提出了海河流域河流水污染治理的路线图,为流域河流污染治理和生态修复提供前瞻性的战略指导和支撑.     

Storm impacts along European coastlines. Part 1: The joint effort of the MICORE and ConHaz Projects

The current paper discusses the topic of marine storm impact along European coastlines, presenting results from two FP7 Projects currently focusing on this topic, one working on the physical aspects of the problem (MICORE) and the other one on the socio-economic implications (ConHaz).The MICORE Project aims to provide on-line predictions of storm-related physical hazards (hydrodynamic as well as morphodynamic). The ConHaz Project addresses the socio-economic implications should these (or other) hazards actually materialize. Together these projects aim to deliver crucial information for emergency response efforts, while realizing the practical limitations for information processing and dissemination during crisis situations.The MICORE Project has developed and demonstrated on-line tools for reliable predictions of the morphological impact of marine storm events in support of civil protection mitigation strategies. The project specifically targeted the development of early warning and information systems to support short term emergency response in case of an extreme storm event. The current paper discusses in detail the outcome of an activity of databasing historical storm data. No clear changes in storminess were observed, except for some storm proxies (e.g. surges) and only at some locations (e.g. northern Adriatic, southern Baltic, etc.).The ConHaz Project undertook a desktop study of the methods normally used for evaluating the impact of marine storms and the associated coastal hazards considering direct costs, costs due to disruption of production processes, indirect costs, intangible costs, and costs of adaptation and mitigation measures. Several methods for cost estimation were reviewed. From the review it emerged that normally end-users only evaluate direct costs after the storms, while the cost of adaptation and mitigation measures is only done strategically in the context of Integrated Coastal Zone Management plans. As there is no standardized method for cost evaluations in this field, it is suggested that clear guidelines should be produced on the basis of simplicity for use by end-users. The integration between historical databases of the physical parameters of storms and detailed cost evaluation information would support the development of a knowledge background in end-users and justify the development of adaptation strategies.     

增氧对不同秸秆还田稻田田面水养分动态及温室气体排放的影响

秸秆还田对于改善土壤结构、培肥土壤和提高农作物产量与品质有着重要意义,但秸秆还田会增加甲烷排放和面源污染物排放等环境风险,如何减少秸秆还田带来的负面效应是亟需解决的难题.系统比较了增氧对不同碳氮比秸秆还田稻田水稻生长期内田面水碳氮含量和温室气体排放的影响.结果表明,不同秸秆还田均明显增加了稻田田面水中化学需氧量(COD),虽略微降低了N₂O排放,但显著促进了稻田甲烷的排放和全球增温潜势,大小表现为：麦秸还田>油菜秸秆>蚕豆秸秆还田;秸秆还田处理提高了水稻产量,但统计未达显著水平.增氧处理不显著影响水稻产量,使秸秆还田后田面水COD降低15%～32%,稻田甲烷排放显著降低10.4%～24.8%,稻田GWP显著降低9.7%～24.4%,其中麦秸还田处理下增氧效果最佳.结果发现增氧措施在秸秆还田稻田尤其是麦秸还田稻田温室气体减排与降低COD排放风险中的潜在作用及其应用可能性.     

中国规划环评中协调性分析的作用

协调性分析是规划环境影响评价的重要组成部分,它的分析对象是被评价的规划草案及其相关的政策、法规、规划等。在以规划草案为评估对象的环境影响评价中,协调性分析能够起到两种作用：解释制定规划草案的“政策背景环境”,和检查规划草案是否存在资源保护、环境保护方面的缺陷和不足。这两种作用不能被截然分开。协调性分析的目的是帮助环评单位和公众更好地理解规划制定的背景,以及使规划环评针对草案的缺陷与不足提出相应的环境目标和环境保护对策。分析结果一般可以使用矩阵来表示。如果规划环评可以早期介入到规划的制定中,描述“政策背景环境”和制定可选择性方案这两个程序就可以达到协调性分析的目的．因此不再需要进行专门的协调性分析。     

Effectiveness of the strategies to combat land degradation and drought

This paper focuses on the determination of the most effective set of mitigation and adaptation strategies applied to combat land degradation and drought in a latitudinal gradient. This study was carried out in Chile, in a latitude gradient between 17° 30′S and 36° 33′S. The northern regions are mostly formed by desert and dry land, which can be considered as marginal areas for agriculture. On the other hand, the area formed by the southern regions has an industrialized agriculture where an increased use of technology takes place and where the climate and water availability are optimal for the development of agriculture. The period considered in this study was between 2000 and 2007. We calculated an Investment Effectiveness Index. Afterwards, and in order to assess the effectiveness of the financial support, we performed multiple regressions (P?≤?0.05), where the Index was considered as the independent variable, and the annual difference of the area affected by a high risk of desertification was considered as the dependent variable. Our findings suggest that the effectiveness of the different set of the strategies applied to fight against desertification and drought varies in a latitudinal gradient. Thus, in arid and hyper arid areas the promotion of modern irrigation systems seems to be effective in combating desertification, while in Mediterranean climates the reforestation strategies seem to play an important role. Our results suggest that in areas heavily degraded by overgrazing, the most effective strategies are those oriented to obtain a permanent vegetation cover on degraded soils.     

Mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions in European conventional and organic dairy farming

Dairy farming is the largest agricultural source of the greenhouse gases methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) in Europe. A whole-farm modeling approach was used to investigate promising mitigation measures. The effects of potential mitigation measures were modeled to obtain estimates of net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from representative dairy model farms in five European regions. The potential to reduce farm GHG emissions was calculated per kg milk to compare organic and conventional production systems and to investigate region and system specific differences. An optimized lifetime efficiency of dairy cows reduced GHG emissions by up to 13% compared to baseline model farms. The evaluation of frequent removal of manure from animal housing into outside covered storage reduced farm GHG emissions by up to 7.1%. Scraping of fouled surfaces per se was not an effective option since the reduction in GHG emissions from animal housing was more than out-weighed by increased emissions from the storage and after field application. Manure application by trail hose and injection, respectively, was found to reduce farm GHG emissions on average by 0.7 and 3.2% compared to broadcasting. The calculated model scenarios for anaerobic digestion demonstrated that biogas production could be a very efficient and cost-effective option to reduce GHG emissions. The efficiency of this mitigation measure depends on the amount and quality of organic matter used for co-digestion, and how much of the thermal energy produced is exploited. A reduction of GHG emissions by up to 96% was observed when all thermal energy produced was used to substitute fossil fuels. Potential measures and strategies were scaled up to the level of European regions to estimate their overall mitigation potential. The mitigation potential of different strategies based on a combination of measures ranged from −25 up to −105% compared to baseline model farms. A full implementation of the most effective strategy could result in a total GHG emission reduction of about 50 Mt of carbon dioxide (CO₂) equivalents per year for conventional dairy farms of EU(15) comparable to the defined model farms.     

Improving flood risk analysis for effectively supporting the implementation of flood risk management plans: The case study of “Serio” Valley

The EU Flood Directive 2007/60 requires the assessment and delineation of flood risk maps. The latter should provide the required knowledge for the development of flood risk management plans (FRMPs), that should deal with all features of risk management: e.g. preparation, protection and prevention, comprising also the phase of the flood forecasting and warning systems, in addition to the emergency management. The risk maps, delineated through the expert-drive qualitative (EDQ) approach currently adopted in several European countries, such as Italy, fail to represent the information base that needed by stakeholders for selecting the suitable objectives and designing the appropriate mitigation actions for flood risk management. In the EDQ approach, the flood hazard and the potential damage degree maps are combined by means of a matrix to obtain a qualitative flood risk map. However, the performance of the risk matrix is not usually rigorous validated and, therefore, presents limits, such as subjective and not careful explained interpretation of rating and poor resolution, (due to range compression), that can produce errors in comparative ranking of risk areas. In this context, this paper proposes the FloodRisk approach that aims to improve the efficacy of flood risk map overcoming the limits of EDQ approach in supplying the knowledge base that allow to analyze costs and benefits of potential mitigation measures. However, the proposed approach is also able to involve the citizens in the flood management process, enhancing their awareness. An application of FloodRisk procedure is showed on a pilot case in “Serio” Valley, (North Italy), and its strengths and limits, in terms of additional efforts required in its application compared with EDQ procedure, have been discussed focusing on the efficacy of the outcomes provided for the fulfillment of FRMPs. The results have demonstrated the ability of FloodRisk, respect to EDQ approach, to distinguish successfully different levels of vulnerability of exposure elements, thanks to the use of asset value and depth-damage curves, that allows a suitably evaluation of the effectiveness of risk mitigation strategies. In this light, a successfully application of a cost-benefit analysis of FloodRisk approach on a portfolio of alternative mitigation actions, (i.e. structural and non-structural measurements), has been demonstrated on the proposed study case. However, FloodRisk requires additional information, e.g. water depths assessment and assets values, and it needs a proper analysis and communication of the uncertainty in its results. Although they still exist limitations that impede, at present, the FloodRisk application without an adequate understanding and a critical consideration of the hazard, exposure and vulnerability characteristics of the study area, considerations are supplied on how the utilization of this approach can be maximized in the light of the next flood risk maps revision due by December 2019.     

Boundary work in climate policy making in Brazil: Reflections from the frontlines of the science-policy interface

Despite challenges to the authority and legitimacy of science as a neutral representation of the world, expert advisors are playing an increasingly central role in environmental policy-making in both the Global North and South. This article explores the science-policy interface, based on the experience of the main author as a scientist and policy-maker at FEAM, a state-level environmental agency in Brazil. Contributing to the literature on boundary objects and organizations, the article details the practices necessary to manage the relationship between political and scientific norms in the development of the regional Climate and Energy Plan (CEP) for the state of Minas Gerais. To sustain the role of FEAM as a boundary organization mediating between political and scientific demands, a team of scientists and policy-makers had to perform different types of boundary work in a closely connected manner. It was necessary to actively frame climate change as an economic problem, and structure its solution in terms of mitigation mechanisms. Responding to changes in the national and international political context, FEAM reframed climate change from mitigation into largely an adaptation issue that could lead to win-win solutions as to attain saliency and avoid insurmountable political obstacles for its approval. Based on this experience, the article argues that the performance of boundary objects and organizations in the science-policy interface not only requires an ability to bring ‘truth to power’ but to also the capacity to sense, anticipate and avoid political obstacles. For this reason even though boundary organizations provide a breeding ground for institutional learning it is an unsuitable location for scientific or political revolutions.     

Translating mitigation measures proposed in environmental impact statements into planning conditions: Promises and practices by multinational platinum mining firms along the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is identified as an important instrument for facilitating environmental protection and sustainable development. However, since its emergence there has been a growing interest in examining its translation from theory into practice. This paper reviews the translation of mitigation measures proposed in environmental impact statements (EISs) into planning conditions at two platinum mining and processing projects along the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe. By comparing mitigation measures proposed in EISs and those included in environmental management plans (EMPs), examining views of environmental managers and local residents, as well as field observations the mitigation implementation status is verified and evaluated. Results show that 52% of mitigation measures proposed in EISs and mostly procedural are translated into planning conditions. Residents near the platinum processing plant were not satisfied with the mitigation of sulphur dioxide, dust and noise impacts on their health. The need to incorporate and enforce substantive mitigation measures in EISs and planning conditions is recommended for the future.     

A strategic approach to selecting policy mechanisms for addressing coal mine methane emissions: A case study on Kazakhstan

Coal production globally is projected to grow in the foreseeable future. Countries with heavy reliance on coal could reduce methane and other emissions through the capture and utilization of coal mine methane (CMM) in the short and medium term, while they pursue structural and long-term economic changes. Several countries have successfully implemented policies to promote CMM capture and utilization; however, some countries still struggle to implement projects. This paper outlines key factors to consider in adapting policies for CMM mitigation. The authors propose an approach for selecting adequate mechanisms for stimulating CMM mitigation that involves reviewing global best practices and categorizing them functionally either as mechanisms needed to improve the underlying conditions or as CMM-specific policies. It is important to understand local policy frameworks and to consider whether it is more feasible to improve underlying policy conditions or to provide targeted incentives as an interim measure.Using Kazakhstan as a case study, the authors demonstrate how policymakers could assess the overall policy framework to find the most promising options to facilitate CMM projects. Kazakhstan’s emissions from underground coal mines have been increasing both in total and per tonne of coal production, while overall production has been declining. CMM mitigation presents an opportunity for the country to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions in the near and medium term, while the government pursues sustainable development goals. Analysis shows that policymakers in Kazakhstan can leverage existing policies to stimulate utilization by extending feed-in tariffs to cover CMM and by developing working methodologies for companies to obtain emission reduction credits from CMM projects.