Classification and management issues of Greek lakes under the European Water Framework Directive: a DPSIR approach

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) establishes a framework for the protection of water bodies. The aim of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) is to ensure sustainable management of groundwater, freshwater and marine water in the European Union, such that a minimum "good ecological status" will be obtained by 2015. We used background morphometric, hydrologic, physico-chemical and biological data, in order to highlight the ecological status of the natural Greek lakes using also the Driving-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) approach in order to link the driving forces and further the pressures with the present state of the lakes' ecosystems. In addition detailed biodiversity and habitat typology data are provided. The assessment of the DPSIR approach under the view of WFD provided a quite clear identification of pressures and the subsequent impacts of the qualitative status of the Greek lakes.     

欧盟流域水环境监测与评价及对我国的启示

为提升我国水环境监测与管理能力,介绍了欧盟水框架指令关于水环境监测的规定,举例介绍了捷克、波兰和意大利等欧盟成员国的水环境监测与评价方法,并对我国在该领域的工作提出了一些想法。     

Report on EU guidance on groundwater monitoring developed under the common implementation strategy of the water framework directive

The establishment of high quality long-term monitoring programmes is essential if the implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) is to be effective. It is recognised that monitoring can be very expensive and so guidance is needed to establish cost-effective, risk-based and targeted groundwater monitoring across Europe that enables WFD objectives to be met. In this context, the Groundwater Working Group (WGC) of the Common Implementation Strategy (CIS) of the WFD has developed recommendations aiming to implement consistent groundwater monitoring across Europe. This has been published on the internet in the form of a non-legally binding guidance document, which provides useful elements for the development and maintenance of networks at high standards and thereby provide the necessary information to assess (ground)water status, identify trends in pollutant concentrations, support establishment and assessment of programmes of measures and the effective targeting of economic resources. This paper presents this guidance document.     

The inadequacy of monitoring without modelling support

There is much to gain in joining monitoring and modelling efforts, especially in the present process of implementing the European Water Framework Directive and in the coming implementation of the Groundwater Directive. Nevertheless, present practises in the water management world suggest that most often models are not considered an option when monitoring obligations in the WFD are solved. The present paper analyses the constraints, such as perceived insufficiency of data for modelling, lack of explicit requirement for modelling in the WFD and its associated technical guidance documents, lack of awareness about what models can do and lack of confidence in models by water managers and policy makers. The findings have mainly emerged from a series of Harmoni-CA workshops aiming at bringing the monitoring and modelling communities together for a discussion of benefits and constraints in the joint use of monitoring and modelling. The workshops were attended by scientists, water managers, policy makers, stakeholders and consultants. The overall conclusion is that modelling can significantly improve the benefits of monitoring data; by quality assurance of data, interpolation and extrapolation in space and time, development of process understanding (conceptual models), and the assessment of impacts of pressures and effects of programmes of measures.     

Investigative monitoring within the European Water Framework Directive: a coastal blast furnace slag disposal, as an example

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) establishes a framework for the protection of estuarine and coastal waters, with the most important objective being to achieve 'good ecological status' for all waters, by 2015. Hence, Member States are establishing programmes for the monitoring of water quality status, through the assessment of ecological and chemical elements. These monitoring programmes can be of three types: surveillance monitoring; operational monitoring (both undertaken on a routine basis); and investigative monitoring (carried out where the reason of any exceedance for ecological and chemical status is unknown). Until now, nothing has been developed in relation to investigative monitoring and no clear guidance exists for this type of monitoring, as it must be tackled on a 'case-by-case' basis. Consequently, the present study uses slag disposal from a blast furnace, into a coastal area, as a case-study in the implementation of investigative monitoring, according to the WFD.In order to investigate the potential threat of such slags, this contribution includes: a geophysical study, to determine the extent of the disposal area; sediment analysis; a chemical metal analysis; and an ecotoxicological study (including a Microtox test and an amphipod bioassay). The results show that metal concentrations are several times above the background concentration. However, only one of the stations showed toxicity after acute toxicological tests, with the benthic communities being in a good status. The approaches used here show that contaminants are not bioavailable and that no management actions are required with the slags.     

欧盟优先水污染物与环境质量标准制定及其对我国的借鉴作用

综述了欧盟水框架指令和水政策环境质量标准指令框架下,水环境优先污染物和优先危害物质的确定方法、程序和清单,以及地表水质量标准与生物体质量标准的制定方法及监测要求。提出,我国可借鉴欧盟水框架指令和水政策环境质量标准指令,明确水环境管理和污染物控制目标,制定优先污染物筛选评估技术规范及质量标准,持续评估确定地表水优先污染物,同时,建立潜在高风险物质监测监控制度,进一步完善地表水环境质量标准的指标体系,使得水环境的保护更加科学合理。     

Integrating data-driven ecological models in an expert-based decision support system for water management in the Du river basin (Vietnam)

In this study, classification trees were combined with the Water Framework Directive (WFD)-Explorer, a modular toolbox that supports integrated water management in a river basin to evaluate the impact of different restoration measures on river ecology. First, the WFD-Explorer toolbox analysed the effect of different restoration options on the abiotic river characteristics based on the water and substance balance embedded in the simulation environment. Based on these abiotic characteristics, the biological index Biological Monitoring Working Party for Vietnam was then predicted by classification trees that were trained on biological and abiotic data collected in the Du river basin in northern Vietnam. The ecological status of streams in the basin ranged from nearly pristine headwaters to severely impacted river stretches. Elimination of point sources from ore extraction and decentralised domestic wastewater treatment proved to be the most effective measures to improve the ecological condition of the Du river basin. The combination of the WFD-Explorer results with data-driven models enabled model application in a situation where expert knowledge was lacking. Consequently, this approach appeared promising for decision support in the context of river restoration and conservation management.     

Monitoring, assessment and modelling using water quality data in the Saale River Basin, Germany

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) is the overall driver for this environmental study and currently requires the identification of patterns and sources of pollution (monitoring) to support objective ecological sound decision making and specific measures to enhance river water quality (modelling). The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate in a case study the interrelationship between (1) hydrologic and water quality monitoring data for river basin characterization and (2) modelling applications to assess resources management alternatives. The study deals with monitoring assessment and modelling of river water quality data of the main stem Saale River and its principal tributaries. For a period of 6 years the data, which was sampled by Environmental Agencies of the German states of Thuringia, Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt, was investigated to assess sources and indicators of pollution. In addition to the assessment a modelling exercise of the routing of different pollutants was carried out in the lower part of the test basin. The modelling is a tool to facilitate the evaluation of alternative measures to reduce contaminant loadings and improve ecological status of a water body as required by WFD. The transport of suspended solids, salts and heavy metals was modelled along a selected Saale reach under strong anthropogenic influence in terms of contaminants and river morphology between the city of Halle and the confluence with the Elbe River. The simulations were carried out with the model WASP5 which is a dynamic flood-routing and water quality model package developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency.     

Remote sensing as a tool for monitoring water quality parameters for Mediterranean Lakes of European Union water framework directive (WFD) and as a system of surveillance of cyanobacterial harmful algae blooms (SCyanoHABs)

Remote sensing has been used from the 1980s to study inland water quality. However, it was not until the beginning of the twenty-first century that CHRIS (an experimental multi-angle sensor with good spectral and spatial resolutions) and MERIS (with good temporal and spectral resolutions) started to acquire imagery with very good resolutions, which allowed to develop a reliable imagery acquisition system so as to consider remote sensing as an inland water management tool. This paper presents the methodology developed, from the field data acquisition with which to build a freshwater spectral library and the study of different atmospheric correction systems for CHRIS mode 2 and MERIS images, to the development of algorithms to determine chlorophyll-a and phycocyanin concentrations and bloom sites. All these algorithms allow determining water eutrophic and ecological states, apart from generating surveillance maps of toxic cyanobacteria with the main objective of Assessment of the Water Quality as it was used for Monitoring Ecological Water Quality in smallest Mediterranean Reservoirs integrated in the Intercalibration Exercise of European Union Water Framework Directive (WFD). We keep on using it to monitor the Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR) in Spain inland water.     

A methodology for rapid assessment of the environmental status of the shallow aquifer of ��Tavoliere di Puglia�� (Southern Italy)

Anticipating the European Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), the Italian Government issued Legislative Decree n.152/99 which sets out rules for classifying the environmental status of national water bodies in order to achieve specific qualitative objectives by 2016. The most recent European Groundwater Directive (2006/118/EC), which was only recognized by Italy in early 2009 (Legislative Decree 30/09), requires such resources to be characterized from a qualitative standpoint and the risk of their being polluted by individual pollutants or groups of pollutants to be evaluated. This paper reports a simple methodology, based on easy-to-apply rules, for the rapid classification of groundwater, and the results of its application to the shallow aquifer of the plain of Tavoliere delle Puglie located in south Italy. Data collected during well-water monitoring campaigns carried out from 2002 to 2003 made it possible to assess the environmental status of the Tavoliere which, unfortunately, was found to be characterized by ??significant anthropic pressures on quality and/or quantity of groundwater and necessitating specific improvement actions??.     

Water quality indices across Europe--a comparison of the good ecological status of five river basins

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires the definition of near-natural reference conditions to determine the extent of water bodies' deviation from "good ecological status" caused by stress gradients. However, the classification of ecological quality depends on the assessment method applied and the stressor concerned. While assessment methods that are generally applicable would be favourable, many European countries employ the locally developed water quality metrics that assess the impact of organic pollution (including eutrophication) and the associated decrease in dissolved oxygen. These indices do not specifically address stress from organic toxicants, such as pesticides. The aim of this study was to examine the performance of presently used assessment methods to identify reference conditions of non-contaminated streams in five selected European river basins, covering the geographical region from Spain to Finland, as a crucial prerequisite to indicate toxic gradients. The analysis comprised the Belgium biotic index (BBI), the biological monitoring working party (BMWP) scoring system and the revised German saprobic index. For comparison, we included an adaptation of the recently developed SPEAR index. In two previous field studies, this metric highly correlated with measured pesticide gradients. In this study, SPEAR was the only indicator that was generally applicable to all monitoring data and capable of determining "high ecological status" of reference conditions in all basins. Thus, based upon previous and own results, the authors suggest the species at risk (SPEAR) index to be potentially useful as a European-wide index to address deviations from "good ecological status" due to organic toxicants and recommend it for consideration in integrated water-resource evaluations under the WFD.     

Linking biological and physicochemical water quality

To define water quality, the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) demands complex assessments through physicochemical, biological, and hydromorphological controls of water bodies. Since the biological assessment became the central focus with hydrochemistry playing a supporting role, an evaluation of the interrelationships within this approach deems necessary. This work identified and tested these relationships to help improve the quality and efficiency of related efforts. Data from the 384 km² Weisseritz catchment (eastern Erzgebirge, Saxony, Germany and northern Bohemia, Czech Republic) were used as a representative example for central European streams in mountainous areas. The data cover the time frame 1992 to 2003. To implement WFD demands, the analysis was based on accepted German methods and classifications, WFD quality standards, and novel German methods for the biological status assessment. Selected chemical parameters were compared with different versions of the German Saprobic Index, based on macroinvertebrate indicator taxa. Relevant dependencies applicable for integrated stream assessment were statistically tested. Correlation analysis showed significant relationships. The highest scores were found for nutrients (NO₂ ^???, N_inorg, and total N), salinity (Cl^???, SO₄ ^2???, conductivity), and microelements (K^?+?, Na^?+?, Ca^2?+?, Mg^2?+?). The Saprobic Index used in the Integrated Assessment System for the Ecological Quality of Streams and Rivers throughout Europe using Benthic Macro-invertebrates program seems to be the most sensitive indicator to correlate with chemical parameters.     

Immunoassay-based screening of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in sediments: requirements for a new generation of test kits

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been proposed for the inclusion in the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) priority list, currently under revision. Various screening methods have been employed for PCB determination in different environmental matrixes in the last decades, immunoassays being one of the most employed. A literature review reveals that the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is the most commonly applied immunoassay for PCB determination in the environment. However, its application to sediments is very limited. A suitability assessment of immunoassay-based analysis for PCB screening in sediments is presented in this work. The significance of available immunoassay-based test kits under the current environmental pollution scenario and their performance against the sensitivity and specificity requirements dictated by the WFD for PCB analysis in sediments is discussed. For example, current detection limits of available test kits for PCB determination in sediments may not be enough for compliance checking under the WFD. In addition, concentration expressed as Aroclor equivalents does not seem to be the way forward. A proposal for adapting available test kits in order to become more suitable tools for PCB screening in sediments is also presented in this study.     

Defining chemical status of a temporary Mediterranean River

Although the majority of rivers and streams in the Mediterranean area are temporary, no particular attention is being paid for such systems in the Water Framework Directive (WFD). A typical temporal Mediterranean river, draining an intensively cultivated basin, was assessed for its chemical status. Elevated concentrations of nitrates and salts in river water as well as nutrients and heavy metals in river sediments have been attributed to agricultural land uses and practices and point sources of organic pollution. A scheme for the classification of the river's chemical status (within the ecological quality classification procedure) was applied by combining pollution parameters in groups according to related pressures. In light of the temporal hydrological regime and anthropogenic impacts, sediment chemical quality elements were considered, in addition to hydrochemical ones. Despite the extensive agricultural activities in the basin, the majority of the sites examined showed a good quality and only three of them were classified as moderate. For the classification of the chemical quality of temporary water bodies, there is a need to develop ecologically relevant salinity and sediment quality standards.     

Assessing Water Quality Improvement Schemes: The Multi-Attribute Technique of the UK's Environment Agency

The Environment Agency for England and Wales is required to take account of likely costs and benefits in carrying out its duties. Given the complex nature of environmental problems, this task requires sensitivity to issues such as uncertainty, multiple objectives and conflicting value systems. This paper describes a multi-attribute methodology used to carry out this duty in one area of the Agency's work, the regulation of the water industry. The method includes nine attributes measuring the benefits from water quality improvement schemes, and one attribute measuring scheme costs. It is a workable method that clearly satisfies the requirements for the Environment Agency to take account of the costs and benefits of its actions. Refinements are suggested to improve the individual attribute scores, the weights used in prioritisation and the incorporation of costs. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Contamination from historic metal mines and the need for non-invasive remediation techniques: a case study from Southwest England

The UK is legally required by the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) to improve the environmental quality of inland and coastal waters in the coming years. Historic metal mine sites are recognised as an important source of some of the elements on the WFD priority chemicals list. Despite their contamination potential, such sites are valued for their heritage and for other cultural and scientific reasons. Remediating historic mining areas to control the contamination of stream waters, whilst also preserving the integrity of the mine site, is a challenge but might be achieved by novel forms of remediation. In this study, we have carried out environmental monitoring at a historic, and culturally-sensitive, lead-silver mine site in southwest England and have undertaken a pilot experiment to investigate the potential for a novel, non-invasive remediation method at the site. Concentrations of Pb and Zn in mine spoil were clearly elevated with geometric mean concentrations of 6,888 and 710 microg g(-1), respectively. Mean concentrations of Pb in stream waters were between 21 and 54 microg l(-1), in exceedance of the WFD environmental quality standard (EQS) of 7.2 microg l(-1) (annual average). Mean Zn concentrations in water were between 30 and 97 microg l(-1), compared to the UK EQS of 66.5 microg l(-1) (average). Stream sediments within, and downstream from, the mining site were similarly elevated, indicating transport of mine waste particles into and within the stream. We undertook a simple trial to investigate the potential of hydroxyapatite, in the form of bonemeal, to passively remove the Pb and Zn, from the stream waters. After percolating through bonemeal in a leaching column, 96-99% of the dissolved Pb and Zn in stream water samples was removed.     

Coordinating links among research, standardisation and policy in support of water framework directive chemical monitoring requirements

The need for coordination among scientific and policy activities is an old debate in which respective communities have often tried to impose their views rather than reflecting on pragmatic solutions. In the last few years, however, constructive exchanges have taken place in the context of expert groups linked to the implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) and related EU funded research projects, which have resulted in a better understanding of communication and knowledge transfer gaps. These exchanges concern not only the way research is being interfaced with water policies, but also how improved coordination could be organised regarding technical specifications linked to standardisation. This paper discusses on-going efforts to improve coordination among research, standardisation and policy in support of WFD implementation, with emphasis on chemical monitoring requirements.     

Ecological assessment of French Atlantic lakes based on phytoplankton, phytobenthos and macrophytes

Biological elements, including phytoplankton, phytobenthos, macrophytes, benthic invertebrates and fish, are employed by the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60/EC as ecological indicators for the assessment of surface waters. The use of primary producers (phytoplankton, phytobenthos and macrophytes) for water quality assessment has a long history, and several methods have been developed worldwide. In this study, we used these three communities to assess the ecological status of five natural lakes located in the Aquitaine region (southwest France). Several biological indices used in lakes from other European countries or in French rivers were employed and compared among the three communities. Each primary producer provided complementary information about the ecological status of the lakes, including the invasiveness of exotic taxa. Regardless of the producer community used, the response to the environment, as reflected by the indices (adequate for each community), was similar: Lakes Cazaux, Lacanau and Hourtin showed the best ecological status and Parentis and Soustons the worst. Phytoplankton diagnosis reflected and integrated unambiguously the water quality of the lakes, as demonstrated by the strong relationships between the phytoplankton index and the trophic status criteria. This community appeared as the best indicator, especially when macrophytes were absent. The methods applied here represent a potential tool for the assessment of the ecological status in the context of WFD, but they need to be refined. We propose modifications for phytobenthos index initially tailored for running waters for adequate use in lentic ecosystems. Indices for the three primary producers should be modified to incorporate exotic species which may provide information on potential biodiversity losses.