Market aspects in product life cycle inventory methodology

In planning a product life cycle inventory analysis, the correct choice of methodology often depends on market information. This paper discusses a number of points in the life cycle inventory methodology (choice of product alternatives, geographical system boundaries, technological levels and co-product allocation rules) where the market aspect becomes obvious and where a disregard for these aspects may lead to serious flaws in the results.     

基于生命周期的产品碳足迹评价与核算分析

近年来,越来越多的企业对其产品进行碳足迹评价,评价方法主要采用产品碳足迹评价标准提供的碳计量方程,如GHG Protocol、ISO14064、PAS 2050、TS Q 0010等。在介绍相关评价标准的基础上,分析了产品碳足迹的评价步骤,最后利用河北盛华化工有限公司生产的PVC产品为例,给出了基于生命周期的B2B模式的产品碳足迹评价的案例。为企业及相关机构开展碳足迹评价提供借鉴作用。     

基于生命周期的干电池回收及其循环经济模型

介绍了产品全生命周期和循环经济的概念，提出了产品的资源循环模型。对干电池全生命周期的生命过程及阶段进行了划分，并分析了于电池的材料组成，提出了可应用于实践的干电池回收循环利用模型，计算出3种类型回收材料各自所占比重，为我国干电池回收业提供了决策理论和实践指导。     

A life cycle based method to minimise environmental impact of dairy production through product sequencing

The trend of increasing the number of dairy products for sale affects their environmental impact in a life cycle perspective. During dairy processing, the production schedule is affected by more frequent product changes, hence also cleaning operations. This causes more milk waste, use of cleaning agents and water. The amount of milk waste depends on the product change technique used, which is determined by the characteristics of the product. A method was designed to calculate the sequence, which, for a given set of yoghurt products, minimises milk waste. A heuristic method, based on the strive to minimise production waste combined with production rules, was worked out. To determine whether the heuristic solution gives the best possible sequence from an environmental perspective, an optimisation was also made. The analytical method used for optimisation was able to handle 21 products and verified the heuristic method for a waste minimised sequence up to that level. It is also highly probable that for sequences including a greater number of items waste can be minimised with the same heuristic method. A successful demonstration of the possibility to make a more complete environmental assessment was fulfilled by connecting the sequencing model to conventional life cycle assessment methodology.     

基于循环经济的产品可持续发展研究

高新技术的迅速发展和市场环境的不断变化导致了产品更新换代速度的加快,加剧了资源消耗和环境污染。而基于循环经济的特征,开展产品可持续发展理论研究,可以指导产品自身的可持续协调发展,使产品由生产后的静态使用发展到性能或功能的可持续生长,可持续满足市场的全维需求。初步探讨了产品可持续发展的相关内涵、现状及其哲学意义,并分析了产品可持续发展的主要研究内容,对基于循环经济特点的产品可持续发展模式提出了初步讨论。     

The application of life cycle assessment to design

This paper explores the practical application of life cycle assessment (LCA) to product system development. While life cycle assessment methods have been studied and demonstrated extensively over the last two decades, their application to product design and development has not been critically addressed. Many organizational and operational factors limit the integration of the three LCA components (inventory analysis, impact assessment and improvement assessment) with product development. Design of the product system can be considered a synthesis of individual decisions and choices made by the design team, which ultimately shape the system's environmental profile. The environmental goal of life cycle design is to minimize the aggregate environmental impacts associated with the product system. Appropriate environmental information must be supplied to decision makers throughout each stage of the development process to achieve this goal. LCA can serve as a source of this information, but informational requirements can vary as the design moves from its conceptual phase, where many design choices are possible, to its detailed design and implementation. Streamlined approaches and other tools, such as design checklists, are essential. The practical use of this tool in product development also depends on the nature and complexity of the product system (e.g. new vs. established), the product development cycle (time-to-market constraints), availability of technical and financial resources, and the design approach (integrated vs. serial). These factors will influence the role and scope of LCA in product development. Effective communication and evaluation of environmental information and the integration of this information with cost, performance, cultural and legal criteria will also be critical to the success of design initiatives based on the life cycle framework. An overview of several of these design initiatives will be presented.     

Developing benchmarks for consumer-oriented life cycle assessment-based environmental information on products,services and consumption patterns

Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been recognized in the EU in the context of ‘Integrated Product Policy’ (IPP) as providing “the best framework for assessing the potential environmental impacts of products currently available.” A study to promote the use of LCA-based product information was designed, with the following objectives: (a) to develop different benchmarks to which the LCA results of various products can be compared, (b) to study how consumers understand the different benchmarks and what proposals for improvement they have, and (c) to propose a few presentation formats and benchmarks for presenting LCA-based information in communications to consumers. Here we present the final results, i.e., the suggested benchmarks and presentation formats, ‘eco-benchmark’. We also present some lessons derived from the feedback gained from consumers and other stakeholders, and point out future directions for improving the benchmarks and their utilization.     

Material flows in the life cycle of leather

This paper presents a study on the resource and environmental profile of leather for communicating to the consumers about the environmental burdens of leather products. The results indicate that significant environmental impacts were caused during the tanning and finishing of leather as well as the electricity production and transportation required in the life cycle. The use of fossil fuels in the production of energy has greater impact with increased emissions leading to about 15190 kg CO₂ equivalent of global warming and about 73 kg SO₂ equivalent of acidification while producing 100 m² of leather for shoe uppers. Further resource use of 174 kg of coal, 6.5 kg of fuel oil, 17.4 m³ of water and 348 kg of chemicals of which about 204 kg are hazardous are consumed, and wastewater of about 17 m³, BOD of 55 kg, COD of about 146 kg, TDS of 732 kg and solid waste of about 1445 kg are generated during the life cycle for the production of 100 m² of leather. The total solid waste generated is 1317 kg, out of which about 80% is biodegradable contributed by slaughtering, tanning and finishing stage, 14% is non-biodegradable contributed by tanning, finishing and electricity production stages and 6% is hazardous mainly from tanning and finishing stage of leather.     

Uncertainties related to the identification of the marginal energy technology in consequential life cycle assessments

When performing life cycle assessment (LCA) assumptions regarding the energy use are often decisive for the outcome. In this paper, current approaches of identifying marginal electricity and heat technologies for consequential LCAs are challenged. The identification of marginal energy technologies is examined from three angles: The marginal electricity technology is identified in Danish historical and potential future energy systems. The methods of identifying and using marginal electricity and heat technologies in key LCA studies are analysed. Finally, the differences in applying energy system analysis and assuming one marginal technology are illustrated, using waste incineration with energy substitution as a case. The main problem with the current approach is the use of one single marginal technology. It is recommended to use fundamentally different affected technologies and identify these in several possible and fundamentally different future scenarios. If possible, the affected technologies should also be identified based on energy system analyses considering the technical characteristics of the technologies involved. Some results in this paper may be applicable to other affected technologies than energy.     

Approaches to correct for double counting in tiered hybrid life cycle inventories

This paper presents an approach for inventory compilation and adjustment of double counting in tiered hybrid life cycle inventories (LCIs). The combination of input–output and physical inventory data on coefficient level is a convenient way of constructing a hybrid LCI that has both good detail and completeness. The proposed approach formalizes how to deal with partially overlapping data in inventory compilation. This particular approach requires that the issue of double counting is resolved in a consistent manner. Algorithms for identifying and adjusting for double counting are developed. Identification is performed based on a structural path analysis (SPA). Two algorithms for adjustment are presented. The first method is relatively simple to implement but has limitations to its applicability when performing a detailed assessment. The second method is more complex to implement but provides results that allow for more comprehensive structural inventory analysis. Numerical examples are provided in Appendix.     

Reducing life cycle impacts of housing and computers in relation with paper

Product-oriented policies gain more and more attention in environmental policies. In this framework, we studied cases (here presented only housing and computers and paper) in a life cycle perspective in order to determine their environmental impacts (in terms of GHG emissions, resource use and waste production) over the period 1990–2010. We also evaluated their potential for improvement up to 2010 by applying product-oriented strategies. We identified clear technical (theoretical) potential for improvement, especially for housing, packaging and computers and paper in offices. We then carried out a Delphi-based survey among stakeholders in order to investigate potential measures.     

The basis for a method to integrate work environment in life cycle assessments

A method is proposed for including work environment in life cycle assessments. The method is based on five quantitative and two qualitative impact categories. The quantitative categories include: (1) deaths due to work-related accidents; (2) workdays lost due to work-related accidents and diseases; (3) workdays lost due to illness (exceeding ‘normal’); (4) hearing loss; and (5) allergies, eczemas and similar diseases. The qualitative impact categories have been represented by: (6) carcinogenic impact; and (7) impact on reproduction. The impacts in categories 1, 2, 4 and 5 can be estimated for companies and for trades using statistics. Impact category 3 can only be estimated using statistics from companies. For categories 6 and 7, semi-quantitative estimates are possible. The quantitative methods suggested for the work environment part of an LCA can be used in parallel with the quantitative methods for the external environment. The advantages and disadvantages with the methods proposed are also discussed. Impacts have been calculated for energy production, transport and steel production.     

The roles of computer models in the environmental policy life cycle

In this article, we identify four typical roles played by computer models in environmental policy-making, and explore the relationship of these roles to different stages of policy development over time. The four different roles are: models as eye-openers, models as arguments in dissent, models as vehicles in creating consensus and models for management. A general environmental policy life cycle is used to assess the different roles models play in the policy process. The relationship between the roles of models and the different stages of the policy life cycle is explored with a selection of published accounts of computer models and their use in environmental policy-making.     

A methodology for the life cycle and sustainability analysis of manufacturing processes

Life cycle assessment is emerging as a powerful tool in the evaluation of the environmental impact of manufacturing processes. This paper describes a general methodology for the life cycle analysis of manufacturing processes taking into account the flexibility and decision-making potential of knowledge base systems. Emphasis is placed on on-site waste minimisation and associated sustainability characteristics in relation to environmental impact assessment and process improvement. The ensuing software model is applied with some success to an initial study of pulp and paper manufacture.     

Correction to: Globally regional life cycle analysis of automotive lithium-ion nickel manganese cobalt batteries

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change - The article Globally regional life cycle analysis of automotive lithium-ion nickel manganese cobalt batteries written by Jarod C. Kelly,...     

A life cycle impact of the natural gas used in the energy sector in Romania

The world's natural gas consumption continues to grow, increasing its market share of total primary energy consumption. Among the major fuels, natural gas is expected to provide the greatest increase in energy consumption in the world energy sector, due to its relatively low environmental impact and high thermodynamic quality. Natural gas plays a significant role in the energy sector because of its environmental qualities and energy. We analyzed the natural gas life cycle by using the life cycle assessment (LCA) to compare, from an environmental point of view, four sites of heat production by natural gas combustion. We determined the best site from an environmental point of view for a consumer and which stage (extraction, treatment, transportation, storage, combustion) of the natural gas life cycle pollutes the most. This study confirmed the utility of the LCA in the evaluation of the environmental impact in the energy sector.     

再生资源产业内涵及其与相关产业关系

作为国民经济中较为新兴的产业,再生资源产业的界定及其构成还未达成完全一致的理解。在明确再生资源的定义及其分类的基础上,着重探讨再生资源产业的内涵及其与相关产业的关联,提出再生资源产业政策的制定,需要注意与相关产业政策之间相协调。     

Assessment of the environmental impact of carnivorous finfish production systems using life cycle assessment

When evaluating the environmental impacts of finfish production systems, both regional impacts (e.g., eutrophication) and global impacts (e.g., climate change) should be taken into account. The life cycle assessment (LCA) method is well suited for this purpose. Three fish farms that represent contrasting intensive production systems were investigated using LCA: rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in freshwater raceways in France, sea-bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) in sea cages in Greece, and turbot (Scophtalmus maximus) in an inland re-circulating system close to the seashore in France. Two main characteristics differentiated the three farm systems: feed use and energy use. Emission of nitrogen and phosphorus accounted for more than 90% of each farm's potential eutrophication impact. In the trout and sea-bass systems, feed production was the major contributor to potential climate change and acidification impacts and net primary production use (NPPU). In these systems, the main source of variation for environmental impacts was the feed conversion ratio. Results from this study indicate that the sea-bass cage system was less efficient than the trout raceway system, with a higher level of potential eutrophication (65% greater) and NPPU (15% greater). The turbot re-circulating system was a high energy-consumer compared to the trout raceway system (four times higher) and the sea-bass cage system (five times higher). Potential climate change and acidification impacts were largely influenced by energy consumption in the turbot re-circulating system. In the turbot re-circulating system 86% of energy use was due to on-site consumption, while in the sea-bass cage farming system 72% of energy use was due to feed production. These results are discussed in relation to regional contexts of production and focus attention on the sensitivity of each aquatic environment and the use of energy carriers.