The application of life cycle assessment to design

This paper explores the practical application of life cycle assessment (LCA) to product system development. While life cycle assessment methods have been studied and demonstrated extensively over the last two decades, their application to product design and development has not been critically addressed. Many organizational and operational factors limit the integration of the three LCA components (inventory analysis, impact assessment and improvement assessment) with product development. Design of the product system can be considered a synthesis of individual decisions and choices made by the design team, which ultimately shape the system's environmental profile. The environmental goal of life cycle design is to minimize the aggregate environmental impacts associated with the product system. Appropriate environmental information must be supplied to decision makers throughout each stage of the development process to achieve this goal. LCA can serve as a source of this information, but informational requirements can vary as the design moves from its conceptual phase, where many design choices are possible, to its detailed design and implementation. Streamlined approaches and other tools, such as design checklists, are essential. The practical use of this tool in product development also depends on the nature and complexity of the product system (e.g. new vs. established), the product development cycle (time-to-market constraints), availability of technical and financial resources, and the design approach (integrated vs. serial). These factors will influence the role and scope of LCA in product development. Effective communication and evaluation of environmental information and the integration of this information with cost, performance, cultural and legal criteria will also be critical to the success of design initiatives based on the life cycle framework. An overview of several of these design initiatives will be presented.     

Manufacturing actor’s LCA

Modern industrial environmental management encompasses life-cycle thinking. This entails considering not only the emissions and resource use of the company’s production processes, but also the environmental consequences of all processes related to a product’s life cycle. However, no single actor can influence the whole life cycle of a product. To be effective, analysis methods intended to support improvement actions should therefore also consider the decision makers’ power to influence.Regarding the life cycle of a product, there are at least as many perspectives on life-cycle thinking as there are actors. This paper presents an approach with which manufacturing decision makers can sharpen the focus in life-cycle assessment (LCA) from a conventional ‘products or services’ emphasis to a company’s manufacturing processes. The method has been developed by combining knowledge gained from earlier LCA studies with new empirical findings from an LCA study of an SKF manufacturing line.We demonstrate how system boundaries and functional units in an LCA can be defined when adding the perspective of a manufacturing decision maker to the product life-cycle perspective. Such analysis helps manufacturing decision makers identify improvement potentials in their spheres of influence, by focusing on the environmental consequences of energy and material losses in manufacturing rather than merely accounting for the contributions of individual stages of the life cycle to the overall environmental impact. The method identifies and directly relates the environmental consequences of emissions or raw material inputs in the product life cycle to manufacturing processes. In doing so, the holistic systems perspective in LCA is somewhat diminished in favor of the relevance of results to manufacturing decision makers.     

Collaborative activity with business partners for improvement of product environmental performance using LCA

Collaborative activities with business partners have potential to improve environmental performance of product and life cycle assessment (LCA) is an essential technique to implement eco-design of product and production process. However, collection of LCA data from supply chain is a major issue for LCA practitioners. We propose a Supply Chain Collaboration Model (SCCM), which is a framework for collecting producer-specific LCA data from business partners and for promoting improvement activity of product environmental performance. We demonstrate the practicability of the SCCM using three case studies. In each case study, two or three partner companies organized a product improvement project and carried out process analysis techniques such as LCA and material flow cost accounting (MFCA). As a result, improvement activities from the economical standpoint could provide an incentive for business partners to collect LCA data, and thus the SCCM is an effective framework for eco-design.     

一次性塑料水杯与涂层纸杯的生命周期评价与分析

文章对日常使用的一次性塑料水杯与纸杯的全生命周期进行综合评价,比较两者对环境与人体健康的最终影响。采用了生命周期评价的技术路线与方法进行研究,最终得出一次性PE涂层纸杯的环境影响值大于PP塑料杯的结果。分析结果可得出纸杯在材料采用、制造、能耗等方面的缺陷导致了其环境影响值偏大,而PP塑料杯虽然在资源消耗与可降解性上存在劣势,但从全生命周期的视角上来看,却相对环境影响较小。     

Life cycle assessment of borate-treated lumber with comparison to galvanized steel framing

A cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment was done to identify the environmental impacts related to borate-treated lumber used as structural framing and to determine how the impacts compare to the primary alternative product, galvanized steel framing members. Borate-treated lumber may be used for framing buildings in locations of high decay or termite hazard. A model of borate-treated lumber life cycle stages was created and used to calculate inputs and outputs during the lumber production, treating, use, and disposal stages. Lumber production data are based on published sources. Primary wood preservative treatment data were obtained by surveying wood treatment facilities in the United States. Product use and disposal inventory data are based on published data and professional judgment. Life cycle inputs, outputs, and impact indicators for borate-treated lumber were quantified using life cycle assessment LCA methodologies at functional units of 1000 board feet, 100 linear feet (30.5 linear meters) of structural perimeter wall framing, and framing required for the perimeter walls of one representative home. In a similar manner, a life cycle inventory model was developed for the manufacture, use, and disposal of the primary alternative product, galvanized steel framing, and comparisons were done using an equivalent measure of 100 linear feet of structural perimeter wall framing. Impact indicator values such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, fossil fuel use, water use, acidification, ecological toxicity, smog forming potential, and eutrophication were quantified for each of the two framing products.National normalization was done to compare the significance of the framing in a representative U.S. family home to the family’s total annual impact footprint.If a U.S. family of three builds a 2225 square feet (207 square meters) home using borate-treated lumber for structural perimeter wall framing, the framing impact “footprint” (normalized over the use life of the structure) for GHG emissions, fossil fuel use, acidification, ecological toxicity, smog forming potential, and eutrophication each is less than one-tenth of a percent of the family’s annual overall impact. The cradle-to-grave life cycle impacts of borate-treated lumber framing were approximately four times less for fossil fuel use, 1.8 times less for GHGs, 83 times less for water use, 3.5 times less for acidification, 2.5 times less for ecological impact, 2.8 times less for smog formation, and 3.3 times less for eutrophication than those for galvanized steel framing.     

A methodology for the life cycle and sustainability analysis of manufacturing processes

Life cycle assessment is emerging as a powerful tool in the evaluation of the environmental impact of manufacturing processes. This paper describes a general methodology for the life cycle analysis of manufacturing processes taking into account the flexibility and decision-making potential of knowledge base systems. Emphasis is placed on on-site waste minimisation and associated sustainability characteristics in relation to environmental impact assessment and process improvement. The ensuing software model is applied with some success to an initial study of pulp and paper manufacture.     

从LCA视角评估钢铁产品改进的环境效益

钢铁产品性能的提高往往会增加其制造环节的环境负荷,但是在很多领域的使用过程中,高性能钢材相对于普通钢材,更有利于环境。因此评估钢铁产品改进的环境效益需要一个系统化的科学方法———生命周期评价(LCA)。从钢铁产品全生命周期视角,讨论了钢铁产品性能提升与环境影响的关系,阐述了如何利用LCA方法评估钢铁产品全生命周期环境绩效,并列举了宝钢利用LCA方法评估钢铁产品性能改进环境效益的两个案例:某变压器采用性能更高的B30P110取向硅钢片取代原B30G130取向硅钢片,其生命周期碳减排15.1%;宝钢钢制二片罐用镀锡钢板从0.28mm经过6次减薄到0.225mm,使钢罐生命周期碳排放降低14.5%。     

Integration of ECQFD and LCA for sustainable product design

The purpose of this paper is to report a research carried out for ensuring sustainable product design by the integration of environmentally conscious quality function deployment (ECQFD) and life cycle assessment (LCA) approaches. Sustainability refers to the capability of an organization to maximize resource efficiency for ensuring clean and green atmosphere. The sustainable product development model integrated with ECQFD and LCA has been used for ensuring sustainable product design. The implementation study was carried out by gathering data from a single manufacturing organization. The implementation experiences indicated that methodology of sustainable product design is practically feasible and compatible. The findings and contributions of this research would be useful to the majority of the organizations situated in the world.     

Qualitative and quantitative tool development to support environmentally responsible decisions

The Centre for Design at RMIT University in Melbourne, Australia has developed various quantitative and qualitative tools to support decision-making by industry and government partners in product design and policy development. The aim, in general, is to support development of attractive, functional, marketable products while enhancing their environmental performance. Depending on the product, the project scope and the client, the tools that are used can be anything from a half-day char-rette, environmental checklist, to a one-year life cycle assessment (LCA).In this paper we describe our approach and the various tools that have been developed by the research team at the Centre over recent years with the use of case studies. The paper argues that it is important for tool development to be based on solid research and information, but the key to influencing product design decisions is the translation of this information into a usable format for the users.     

基于循环特性的镍氢和锂离子电池环境影响机制分析

为了了解镍氢电池和锂离子电池在生产、使用、废弃或回收过程中的环境影响,建立了一种简单快速的二次电池环境影响机制分析方法。通过生命周期评价(LCA)方法,采用Eco-indicator99体系,综合考虑电池循环容量衰减和循环次数的影响,建立了二次电池环境影响机制分析模型,并运用此模型对两种实验用二次电池(镍氢电池和锂离子电池)的环境影响机制进行了研究。结果表明:1)在所选取的两种二次电池当中,锂离子(Li-ion)电池的环境影响明显比镍氢(Ni-MH)电池的低;2)随着循环次数的增加Li-ion电池环境影响衰减比Ni-MH电池的明显,即随着使用循环次数的增加,Li-ion电池对环境的影响会降低到更多。综合来说,所选取的Li-ion电池比Ni-MH电池更具环境可持续性。文中所提出的环境影响机制分析模型同样可以应用于其他二次电池,以期为环境友好型二次电池的开发提供帮助。     

A comparative study on milk packaging using life cycle assessment: from PA-PE-Al laminate and polyethylene in China

A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach was used to compare the environmental impacts in the life cycle of two milk packaging systems, PA-PE-Al laminate—a laminated foil made from paper, polyethylene and aluminum foil—and polyethylene. The data for the mass, energy fluxes and environmental emissions were obtained from published literature and from site investigations, for the two systems being analyzed for environmental impacts. The application of LCA using Eco-Indicator 99 has made the comparison of the environmental impacts of the two milk packages possible. The results of this LCA study are discussed and the results reveal that the composite packaging has a slightly higher environmental impact than the plastic one. In addition, the environmental impact of raw material extraction is the highest in all of the life cycle stages except for disposal. The environmental impact of composite packaging mainly comes from the fossil fuels, land use and respiratory inorganics categories, while the plastic packaging mainly comes from the fossil fuels category. However, the composite packaging has a greater environmental impact because it has not been well recycled and reused. This environmental impact could be decreased by developing the technology to separate out polyethylene and aluminum from the packaging.     

中国生命周期参考数据库的建立方法与基础模型

缺乏完善的本地化LCA(Life Cycle Assessment)数据库是国内广泛开展LCA研究与应用的主要障碍.本文总结提出了建立中国生命周期参考数据库(Chinese Reference Life Cycle Database,CLCD)的基本方法,包括环境影响类型与物质名录的选择、单元过程清单数据的收集与审核、生命周期清单数据的建模与计算、CLCD数据库的建立等4个方面.按照上述方法,以电力、煤炭、燃油、运输等基础性产品为核心,初步建立了可扩展的中国基础工业系统的生命周期模型,收集了单元过程的全国平均清单数据,通过模型计算获得了这些基础性产品的生命周期清单数据,从而得到了CLCD基础数据库,为下一步扩展为更完善的CLCD数据库提供了方法与模型基础.     

生命周期评价数据库分析与建模

基于关系数据库和面向对象程序设计理论建立了生命周期评价数据库系统。通过综合分析生命周期评价数据，根据生命周期评价数据的数据类型，将数据分为产品评价数据、产品档案数据、基础材料数据和影响评价基础数据，相应的设计了4个数据库。运用关系数据库理论分别对4个数据库建立了物理结构模型。     

The energy consumption and environmental impacts of a color TV set in China

The present study analyses the different processes followed during color TV set production along with the energy consumption and the environment emissions in each stage. The purpose is to identify “hot-spots”, i.e. parts of the life cycle important to the total environmental impact. The analysis is performed using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, which is a method used to identify and quantify in the environmental performance of a process or a product from “cradle to grave”. LCA methodology provides a quantitative basis for assessing potential improvements in the environmental performance of a system throughout the life cycle. The system investigated includes the production of manufacturing materials, transport of manufacturing materials, color TV set manufacturing, transport of color TV sets, use of color TV sets, discarding color TV sets and partial plastic waste energy utilization. The environmental burdens that arise from color TV sets are mainly due to air emissions derived from fossil fuel utilization.     

不确定数据条件下的生命周期评价及其应用

针对产品生命周期评价中普遍存在着的不确定性数据问题，提出基于概率统计的方法，进行生命周期评价以及重要环境影响清单参数的识别与灵敏度分析。结合水源中央空调系统，建立了统计平均意义下的污染排放清单，运用MonteCarlo模拟获得了以均值219．746和方差9．4243所表征的空调机系统生命周期环境影响的概率分布。进一步通过K—S检验与灵敏度分析，识别出10个具有重要环境影响贡献的清单参数及其中4个对环境影响分布较敏感的参数。以概率分布代替固定数值可以反映产品环境绩效的统计信息，能够有效地用于不确定数据条件下的产品生命周期评价。     

我国可持续设计及其实践的探讨

可持续设计超越了传统设计和生态设计，要求平衡经济、环境、社会３方面的发展需要，在可持续设计的基本工具产品生命周期评价尚需进一步发展的同时，建立适当的设计准则是当前发展可持续设计的可行途径。     

铁路运输生命周期评价初探

基于生命周期评价方法,建立了我国铁路运输的生命周期模型,包含电力机车和内燃机车的运行、基础设施建设、上游能源和原料生产等主要过程;采用我国2010年铁路货运统计数据、中国生命周期核心数据库(CLCD)等数据源,通过eBalance软件对铁路运输生命周期的环境影响进行了计算和分析. 归一化分析表明,铁路运输生命周期的主要环境影响类型为富营养化、酸化和可吸入无机物,三者分别占全国相应环境影响类型总量的0.92%、0.70%和0.62%. 对大理—保山段铁路实际建设数据的研究表明,铁路基础设施建设及原材料生产的各项环境影响类型对铁路运输生命周期环境影响的贡献在9.45%(富营养化)～73.55%(非能源资源消耗)之间,影响十分显著. 生命周期节能减排综合评价表明,铁路运输节能减排综合指标的主要贡献来自于初级能耗、NO_x和CO₂,三者分别占ECER(节能减排综合指标值)的30.90%、27.50%和21.60%. 电力机车运输的节能减排效果优于内燃机车运输,其节能减排综合影响比内燃机车低41.91%.      

Implications of choices and interpretation in LCA for multi-criteria process design: de-inked pulp capacity and cogeneration at a paper mill case study

Retrofit process design can be seen as a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) problem aiming at selecting the best alternative for improving the performance of a chemical process. There is a growing consensus that environmental considerations, including the environmental impact associated with all life cycle stages of materials, should be integrated in chemical process design. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique that allows quantification of those impacts. However, implementing this technique would increase the decision-making complexity and thus would necessitate systematic tools and methods. The analogy between LCA and MCDM has been recognized, but the systematic evaluation of LCA methodological choices and interpretation in this context is rarely discussed. The importance of those is demonstrated in this paper using a case study involving the implementation of de-inked pulp capacity and cogeneration and an integrated newsprint mill.     

典型化工产品生命周期环境影响评价研究——以水性涂料产品为例

水性涂料代表了低污染涂料未来发展的主要方向.生命周期评价已经成为企业进行清洁生产以及设计环境友好型产品的重要工具.文章选取水性涂料作为研究对象,利用LCA方法对其进行在原材料生产、产品加工制造和运输过程引起的环境影响进行定量评价,为进一步改进水性涂料产品的环境行为提供依据.结果表明,生命周期评价作为一种定量分析工具对产...     

Towards sustainability in urban water: a life cycle analysis of the urban water system of Alexandria City,Egypt

Urban water authorities and water planers in many countries are struggling to satisfy the growing urban water and sanitation demands, while at the same time achieving sustainability of the urban water system. This research focused on the assessment of the environmental impact of today's Alexandria's urban water system and on the identification of options to improve the sustainability of the system. Therefore, a life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was used. The urban water system was modelled using SimaPro software, and the impacts of various options on the system were analyzed based on the Eco-indicator 99 assessment method. The results show that the highest impact in today's system is generated by the disposal of primary treated wastewater (68% of the total impact) and by high-energy-consuming water treatment plants (18% of the total impact). The research assessed different scenarios for improving the environmental performance of the system and a paradigm shift (decentralization and separation at-source of different kinds of household wastewater) was found to be the preferred long-term scenario.