Heavy metal contamination and human health risk assessment in drinking water from shallow groundwater wells in an agricultural area in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand

Most local people in the agricultural areas of Hua-ruea sub-district, Ubon Ratchathani province (Thailand), generally consume shallow groundwater from farm wells. This study aimed to assess the health risk related to heavy metal contamination in that groundwater. Samples were randomly collected from 12 wells twice in each of the rainy and the dry seasons and were analyzed by inductive coupled plasma spectrometry-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The concentration of detected metals in each well and the overall mean were below the acceptable groundwater standard limits for As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni and Zn, but Pb levels were higher in four wells with an overall average Pb concentration of 16.66 ± 18.52 μg/l. Exposure questionnaires, completed by face-to-face interviews with 100 local people who drink groundwater from farm wells, were used to evaluate the hazard quotients (HQs) and hazard indices (HIs). The HQs for non-carcinogenic risk for As, Cu, Zn and Pb, with a range of 0.004–2.901, 0.053–54.818, 0.003–6.399 and 0.007–26.80, respectively, and the HI values (range from 0.10 to 88.21) exceeded acceptable limits in 58 % of the wells. The HI results were higher than one for groundwater wells located in intensively cultivated chili fields. The highest cancer risk found was 2.6 × 10^?6 for As in well no. 11. This study suggested that people living in warmer climates are more susceptible to and at greater risk of groundwater contamination because of their increased daily drinking water intake. This may lead to an increased number of cases of non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health defects among local people exposed to heavy metals by drinking the groundwater.     

Phytoextraction potential of Sporobulus pyramidalis found in an abandoned battery industry environment in Nigeria

The levels of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Sb and V) in Sporobulus pyramidalis plant species from an abandoned battery industry environment were determined during the wet and dry seasons as follows: The ranges in metal concentrations during the wet and dry seasons were 0.002, 0.420, 0.036 and 36.10?µg?g^?1, respectively. The coefficients of variation for the metals during wet and dry seasons ranged between none to 151.724% and 13.838–214.935%, respectively. The results showed higher levels of the metals in S. pyramidalis during the dry than wet season. Results obtained from both wet and dry season when compared with background values, Federal Environmental Protection Agency and other international standards revealed that the plant species accumulated high levels of these heavy metals which was evident in concentrations exceeding maximum tolerable limits. The health implications of consuming this plant and any other plant or crop within this environment are discussed.     

九洲江流域水环境重金属污染特征及来源解析

九洲江流域环境综合治理已被列为国家跨地区生态补充试点,开展流域重金属污染调查与研究,能为流域生态补偿和综合治理提供科学依据.为了研究九洲江流域水环境重金属浓度分布特征,在流域干流和支流选取了33个采样点,于2018年枯水期、丰水期和平水期分3次进行采样监测,测定13种重金属(Cu、Zn、Pb、Cd、Cr、Ni、Fe、M...     

贵阳市西郊水厂所供管网末梢水重金属污染物季节性特征及潜在健康风险评价

以贵阳市西郊水厂2014年3月和7月所供管网末梢水中10种重金属污染物检测数据为基础,进行了季节性特征分析,并采用美国环保局(USEPA)推荐的健康风险评价模型进行了潜在健康风险评价。结果表明,贵阳市西郊水厂所供管网末梢水中10种重金属的浓度均符合国家饮用水卫生标准;重金属污染物的浓度随季节呈现出不同的特征,汞、锌、硒、钼和钡5种重金属的平均浓度呈现枯水期高于丰水期的特征,而铅、铜、锰和镍4种重金属正好相反,砷浓度的季节性特征不显著;成年人的年平均致癌风险显著大于儿童,但两者年平均非致癌风险接近;儿童和成年人2类人群经口暴露途径的健康风险值均大于皮肤暴露,其中致癌风险分别在2.49×10-6~9.16×10-6和3.26×10-8~9.59×10-8之间,非致癌风险在2.29×10-8~3.20×10-8和1.85×10-10~4.14×10-10之间,且致癌风险均大于非致癌风险。贵阳市西郊水厂所供管网末梢水中10种重金属污染物致癌风险和非致癌风险均未超过最大可接受水平,未对该供水区居民的健康造成威胁。     

Ecological and human health risk assessment of heavy metal contamination in soil of a municipal solid waste dump in Uyo,Nigeria

The study assessed the levels of some heavy metals in soils in the vicinity of a municipal solid waste dumpsite with a view to providing information on the extent of contamination, ecological risk of metals in the soils and human health risk to the residents in Uyo. Soil samples were collected in rainy and dry seasons and analyzed for metals (Pb, Cd, Zn, Mn, Cr, Ni and Fe) using atomic absorption spectrometry. The concentrations of heavy metals (mg/kg) at the dumpsite in rainy season were Pb (9.90), Zn (137), Ni (12.56), Cr (3.60), Cd (9.05) and Mn (94.00), while in dry season, the concentrations were Pb (11.80), Zn (146), Ni (11.82), Cr (4.05), Cd (12.20) and Mn (91.20). The concentrations of metals in the studied sites were higher than that of the control site (P < 0.05). Pollution indices studies revealed that soil samples from dumpsite and distances from 10 and 20 m east of the dumpsite were highly polluted with cadmium. Ecological risk assessment carried out showed that cadmium contributed 98–99 % of the total potentially ecological risk. No probable health risk was observed as the total hazard index of all the metals was less than one. However, children were found to be more susceptible to heavy metal contamination than adult.     

珠海近岸海域表层沉积物中的重金属及生态危害评价

为了研究珠江口近海海域重金属的污染状况,2009年8—12月对珠海珠江口4个站点的表层沉积物进行了6次采样,测定了表层沉积物中重金属Cd、Cr、Pb、Hg、Cu、Zn、Mn、Ni、Fe和金属Al的质量分数,分析了它们质量分数间的相关性,依据Lars Hakanson提出的沉积物中金属污染物评价方法,对Cd、Cr、Pb、Hg、Cu和Zn等6种典型重金属的潜在危害进行了评价。结果表明,Cd、Cu和Zn是该调查区域的主要重金属污染物,应该予以优先控制和治理。位于马骝洲水道入海口的S1位点上,金属元素（Cd除外）质量分数的季节特征是秋季（丰水期）〈冬季（枯水期）,重金属危害指数（RT）为轻微级,重金属潜在生态危害系数（Eir）顺序为Cd〉Hg〉Pb〉Cu〉Zn〉Cr;在S2位点,Cd、Cu、Hg、Ni和Fe的平均质量分数为秋季〉冬季,其它5种金属则为秋季〈冬季,RT为强级;在S3、S4位点上,8种金属元素（Hg、Mn除外）的质量分数呈现秋季〉冬季的现象,RT为很强级;S2、S3和S4站点的Eir均表现为Cd〉Hg〉Cu〉Pb〉Zn〉Cr的顺序。     

Distribution,enrichment mechanism and risk assessment for fluoride in groundwater: a case study of Mihe-Weihe River Basin,China

● High fluorine is mainly HCO₃·Cl-Na and HCO₃-Na type. ● F⁻ decreases with the increase of depth to water table. ● High fluoride is mainly affected by fluorine-containing minerals and weak alkaline. ● Fluorine pollution is mainly in the north near Laizhou Bay (wet season > dry season). ● Groundwater samples have a high F⁻ health risk (children > adults). Due to the unclear distribution characteristics and causes of fluoride in groundwater of Mihe-Weihe River Basin (China), there is a higher risk for the future development and utilization of groundwater. Therefore, based on the systematic sampling and analysis, the distribution features and enrichment mechanism for fluoride in groundwater were studied by the graphic method, hydrogeochemical modeling, the proportionality factor between conventional ions and factor analysis. The results show that the fluorine content in groundwater is generally on the high side, with a large area of medium-fluorine water (0.5–1.0 mg/L), and high-fluorine water is chiefly in the interfluvial lowlands and alluvial-marine plain, which mainly contains HCO₃·Cl-Na- and HCO₃-Na-type water. The vertical zonation characteristics of the fluorine content decrease with increasing depth to the water table. The high flouride groundwater during the wet season is chiefly controlled by the weathering and dissolution of fluorine-containing minerals, as well as the influence of rock weathering, evaporation and concentration. The weak alkaline environment that is rich in sodium and poor in calcium during the dry season is the main reason for the enrichment of fluorine. Finally, an integrated assessment model is established using rough set theory and an improved matter element extension model, and the level of groundwater pollution caused by fluoride in the Mihe-Weihe River Basin during the wet and dry seasons in the Shandong Peninsula is defined to show the necessity for local management measures to reduce the potential risks caused by groundwater quality.     

新疆焉耆盆地农田土壤重金属污染及健康风险评价

为研究新疆焉耆盆地绿洲农田土壤重金属的污染及潜在健康风险,选取194个样点采集土壤样品,测定As、Cd、Cr、Cu、Ni、Pb和Zn共7种重金属元素含量。利用地质累积指数(I_(geo))评价农田土壤污染水平,采用US EPA健康风险评价模型,对农田土壤重金属污染的潜在健康风险进行评估。结果表明,研究区农田土壤7种重金属平均含量均未超出《食用农产品产地环境质量评价标准》中的限值,但Cd、Cr、Ni、Pb和Zn含量平均值分别超出新疆灌耕土背景值的1.67、1.41、1.30、3.01和6.78倍。农田土壤中Zn呈现轻度污染,Cd与Pb呈现轻微污染,As、Cr、Cu与Ni呈现无污染态势。健康风险评估结果表明,经手-口摄入是研究区农田土壤重金属日均暴露量及健康风险主要途径。农田土壤7种重金属通过3种暴露途径的非致癌风险商(HQ)与非致癌风险指数(HI),单项致癌风险指数(CR)与总致癌风险指数(TCR)均小于安全阈值,属于可接受风险水平。研究区农田土壤重金属对儿童的非致癌风险低于成人,致癌风险高于成人。研究区农田土壤中As与Pb是最主要的非致癌风险因子,As是最主要的致癌风险因子,研究区农田土壤中As对人体的健康风险应当引起重视。     

华南滨海小流域降雨入渗对地下水的补给分析

以华南滨海小流域——中山大学滨海水循环试验基地（试验基地）作为研究区,在对该流域地下水和雨水分别进行采样、实验分析的基础上,利用氯量平衡法（CMB）与地下水动态法计算了该流域的降雨入渗补给系数与给水度。研究发现,试验基地地下水主要受降雨补给,地下水埋深在雨季（4—9月）、旱季（10—3月）的变动范围大致为0～1.5 m与0～0.5 m。根据CMB计算结果,补给区、中间区雨季降雨入渗补给系数分别为旱季的1.3～1.6倍和1.3～2.0倍,且补给区大于中间区（M5井除外）。利用地下水动态法计算次降雨入渗补给系数,所得雨季、旱季的均值（7.6%和4.6%）与CMB计算结果（7.7%和5.3%）较为接近。给水度、雨强与入渗补给系数均存在一定的线性关系。将地下水埋深分别与降雨入渗补给量及潜水蒸发量进行多项式拟合对比,发现降雨入渗对地下水的最大入渗补给埋深约为2.3 m,当埋深为3.1 m时,地下水可获得最大净补给量。     

渭河流域关中段地表水重金属的污染特征与健康风险评价

由于重金属的毒理性及其对水生生态系统的重要影响,水生环境的重金属污染已成为全世界关注的问题.渭河是黄河的第一大支流,近年来随着沿岸社会经济的发展,渭河的水质受到严重的威胁,但是对渭河流域地表水重金属的污染状况缺乏全面评估.以渭河流域关中段为研究区域,采集了该流域35个地表水样品,检测了12种重金属元素(Cr、Mn、Fe...     

袁河水系溶解态痕量金属元素分布特征及来源分析

为研究袁河水系水体溶解态痕量金属元素污染来源与水质状况,分别于2018年7月和2019年1月在袁河干流和支流采集38个表层水样,检测了痕量金属元素Cr、Fe、Mn、As、Al、Cd、Ni和Tl的浓度.采用单因素方差分析分析袁河水系痕量金属元素的时空特征,基于痕量金属元素水质指数评价袁河痕量金属元素污染程度,采用相关分析、主成分分析探讨痕量金属元素污染的主要来源.结果表明,袁河部分金属元素时间或空间差异显著,Cr、Cd、As浓度在丰、枯水期之间差异显著,Fe、Cd、Tl浓度在干、支流之间差异显著.袁河丰、枯水期污染程度相似,主要污染河段位于宜春河段和新余河段,重度污染采样点基本上位于支流.痕量金属元素中Cr、Fe、As主要来源于城市废水,工业活动和采矿活动;Ni、Cd、Tl主要来源于生活污水和工业废水;Mn、Al主要来源于自然活动和采矿活动.本研究可以为袁河流域的痕量金属元素污染治理提供科学依据.     

Seasonal variations in trace metal levels,speciation and physicochemical determinants of metal availability in dumpsite soils within Akwa Ibom State,Nigeria

Physicochemical properties, total metals and metal species were investigated in surface soil samples from six urban dumpsites within Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Results obtained indicated that Pb, Cd and Cr levels were higher in the dry season than in wet season, whereas Ni levels were higher during the wet season. Soil pH, organic matter and cation-exchange capacity (CEC) showed higher values in wet season than in dry season, whereas sand and clay levels were higher in the dry season. Speciation analysis showed the principal fraction of the metals to be Pb (reducible), Cd (acid extractable) and Ni (residual), whereas Cr existed in the residual fraction during the dry season and in the acid-extractable fraction during the wet season. Soil pH was positively correlated at p<0.1 with all metals in both seasons, sand was negatively correlated with the metals in both seasons, and CEC was negatively correlated with all metals in both seasons, except Pb in the wet season. Organic matter showed variable relationships with metals in both seasons. Seasonal variations affected metal availability and physicochemical properties of the soil. Total metal concentrations followed the order Pb>Ni>Cd>Cr, whereas their bioavailability followed the trend Cd>Pb>Cr>Ni.     

Influence of climate on groundwater fluoride in different climatic domains in a hard rock terrain of Sri Lanka: implications to community health

Health risks associated with excessive intake of fluoride through drinking water are one of the geoenvironmental health problems observed in many parts of the world, mainly in countries of the humid tropical belt, including Sri Lanka. Fluoride-related health problems are widespread in the dry climatic region compared to the wet climatic zone of Sri Lanka. The potential health risks of fluoride for communities in a river basin which drains through two climatic zones, viz. wet and dry zones, were investigated in this study. Sixty-three groundwater samples were collected from wells in the Walawe river basin during pre- and post-monsoon periods. From collected samples, ten selected samples were analyzed for their tritium (³H) levels to find out the approximate resident time of groundwater. In the river basin, the dry zone segment is characterized by elevated levels of fluoride (>?1.0 mg/L) in groundwater. Groundwater fluoride in the region was primarily of geogenic origin. The tritium values showed older groundwater contained higher fluoride levels, showing a increased dissolution of fluoride-bearing minerals. The hazard quotient (HQ_fluoride) showed that about 45% of pre- and 55% of post-monsoon groundwater samples in the dry zone area were unsuitable for drinking purposes for school children who are vulnerable to non-carcinogenic risks and dental fluorosis. This study emphasizes the need for continuous water quality monitoring and mitigation measures to ensure the health of residents.

     

太湖典型河网区地表水与沉积物氮、磷和重金属含量空间分异

将无锡城乡交错区河网分为城镇生活区水巷、工业区主河道、农业区主河道、农业区支流和鱼塘5种类型区.通过秋季(旱季)和夏季(雨季)2次采样,研究氮、磷和Cu、Zn、Pb、Cr、Cd在地表水和沉积物中的含量及其空间变化.结果表明:(1)城乡交错区地表水氮、磷来源于生活污染和工业污染的比例大于农田,同时具有来源分散、污染面广的特征.(2)由于城镇地表径流和工业活动影响,各类型区地表水重金属含量均有不同程度提高.但地表水重金属主要沿主河道迁移,旱季和雨季主河道重金属含量均大于农业区支流,而且随着与城镇距离增加,主河道沉积物重金属含量迅速降低,重金属污染影响范围较小.(3)与重金属相比,地表水氮、磷污染仍是太湖水网区主要的环境问题.但城镇及其周围河流沉积物中富集的重金属含量很高,其潜在环境风险不容忽视.     

东莞市某地区地表水中重金属健康风险不确定性评价

为了解东莞市西南地区(麻涌镇、沙田镇、虎门镇和长安镇)地表水中重金属污染现状与健康风险水平,对研究区域内29个地表水样中As、Cd、Cr、Cu、Hg、Ni、Pb和Zn等重金属元素进行测定,并运用不确定性健康风险评价模型对研究区地表水中的重金属进行健康风险评估。结果表明:该研究区域地表水中重金属引起的致癌风险较高,人均年健康风险都在Ⅴ级风险及以上。化学致癌性重金属引起的人均年健康风险中,以Cr最大,As次之,然后是Cd。非化学致癌性重金属引起的人均年健康风险中,Pb的风险最大,Ni次之,风险均远小于化学致癌性重金属引起的人均年健康风险。因此,该研究区域地表水中重金属健康风险管理应以化学致癌风险为主,重金属污染物的优先控制顺序为CrAsCd。     

粤北2座饮用水源地水库的富营养化与浮游植物群落动态

粤北地区的水库以山地型水库为主,其中有不少担负着饮用水源的功能。为了解粤北地区水源地水库的富营养化状态与浮游植物种群的动态变化,于2011年的枯水期（2―3月）和丰水期（6―7月）对花山和白水礤2座中型水库进行了采样调查,对水库的营养盐和浮游植物种群进行了分析。结果表明：2座水库均为贫营养型;浮游植物在枯水期和丰水期的种类变化不大,共鉴定出的浮游植物6门37种（属）,以硅藻为主要优势种群,优势种为小环藻（Cyclotella sp.）和颗粒直链藻（Melosira granulata）。同时,枯水期和丰水期2座水库浮游植物的丰度和生物量都比较低,其值分别为0.65×106～1.95×106cells.L-1、0.11 mg.L-1和0.73×106～8.9×106cells.L-1、0.05～0.50 mg.L-1。在浮游植物种群动态中,2座水库浮游植物丰度和生物量的季节变化主要表现为硅藻丰度和生物量的变化,低浓度的氮、磷营养盐限制是影响这2座贫营养水库浮游植物动态变化主要因素。     

准东煤矿区土壤镉污染风险评价及敏感性分析

镉是一种毒性很强的重金属元素,易通过食物链进入人体,对人体健康产生影响。新疆地区的煤炭资源开发已引起重金属污染问题,但目前有关镉污染风险评价的研究相对不足。本研究采用地质累积指数法、潜在生态危害指数法、美国环保局(US EPA)健康风险评估方法和缓冲区分析方法,对准东红沙泉和北山煤矿土壤中镉的污染现状、生态风险水平和健康风险水平做了分析与评价。结果显示:1)研究区土壤镉含量普遍超过国家土壤环境质量Ⅱ级标准,处于重污染水平;2)研究区的镉污染具有极高生态风险;3)镉污染水平和生态风险系数具有明显空间性,它们在研究区的强度排序为堆煤场矿区生活区芨芨湖雀仁乡;4)手-口途径是最主要的健康风险暴露途径,所有人群中儿童暴露风险最高;5)准东煤矿区镉污染水平较高,但其非致癌水平和致癌水平均未超过风险限值;6)矿区周边0~30 km区域内属于健康风险高敏感区域。综上可知:准东地区煤矿开采引起了周边环境镉污染。镉污染对人类健康,特别是儿童的健康具有较高的暴露风险。当地镉污染虽未达到致病水平,但也应引起足够重视。     

Characteristics,sources and health risk assessment of toxic heavy metals in PM<Subscript>2.5</Subscript> at a megacity of southwest China

Twenty trace elements in fine particulate matters (i.e., PM_2.5) at urban Chengdu, a southwest megacity of China, were determined to study the characteristics, sources and human health risk of particulate toxic heavy metals. This work mainly focused on eight toxic heavy metal elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn). The average concentration of PM_2.5 was 165.1 ± 84.7 µg m^?3 during the study period, significantly exceeding the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (35 µg m^?3 in annual average). The particulate heavy metal pollution was very serious in which Cd and As concentrations in PM_2.5 significantly surpassed the WHO standard. The enrichment factor values of heavy metals were typically higher than 10, suggesting that they were mainly influenced by anthropogenic sources. More specifically, the Cr, Mn and Ni were slightly enriched, Cu was highly enriched, while As, Cd, Pb and Zn were severely enriched. The results of correlation analysis showed that Cd may come from metallurgy and mechanical manufacturing emissions, and the other metals were predominately influenced by traffic emissions and coal combustion. The results of health risk assessment indicated that As, Mn and Cd would pose a significant non-carcinogenic health risk to both children and adults, while Cr would cause carcinogenic risk. Other toxic heavy metals were within a safe level.     

A new comprehensive ecological risk index for risk assessment on Luanhe River,China

With the enhancement of human activities which influence the physical and chemical integrity of ecosystem, it was bound to increase ecological risk to the ecosystem, and the risk assessment of small scale, single pollutant, or only on water quality have been not satisfied the demand of sustainable development of basin water environment. Based on the response relationship between environmental flow requirements guarantee ratio (GEF) and river ecological risk index (ERI), the Sediment Quality Guideline Quotient index (SQG-Q), and the Biotic Index (BI), we construct a new comprehensive ecological risk index (CERI) to evaluate the ecological risk of Luanhe River, China. According to the response relationship between GEF and ERI, upper and lower reaches of Luanhe River (Goutaizi to Hanjiaying) were at moderate risk level (0.41 < ERI < 0.56) in dry season, and all sites were at low risk level (ERI < 0.40) in wet season; considering the contribution of heavy metals contamination in the SQG-Q, the Luanhe River was the most influenced by higher levels of heavy metals in dry season and wet season; when this index was applied to the PAHs levels, only 30 and 20% of the sampling sites appeared to be moderately impacted (0.1 < SQG-Q PAHs < 0.5) by the PAHs in dry season and wet season, respectively. The results of BI showed that half of the sites appeared to be at moderately polluted level (50% of the sites, 0.25 < BI < 0.32) and heavily polluted level (Zhangbaiwan, BI = 0.36) in dry season, and 40% of the sites appeared to be at moderately polluted level (0.26 < BI < 0.29) in wet season. The CERI showed that 70 and 30% of the sites were at moderate risk level in dry season (0.25 < CERI < 0.36) and wet season (0.26 < CERI < 0.29), respectively. The results could give insight into risk assessment of water environment and decision-making for water source security.

     

Metal fractionation of cadmium, lead and arsenic of geogenic origin in topsoils from the Marrancos gold mineralisation, northern Portugal

The Marrancos gold mineralisation has a chemical assemblage of Fe–As–Se–Bi–Au–Ag–Te–(Cu–Pb–Zn–Sn–W). The −200 mesh of 144 topsoil samples was analysed by ICP–MS to determine total contents of 53 elements that include potentially harmful elements like Cd, As and Pb. The soil geochemistry shows that some trace elements occur in considerably high concentrations. On the basis of data for total metal concentrations, 10 topsoil samples were selected to carry out a metal fractionation study using a selective extraction method. A set of four leaches of increasing strength was used sequentially in the soil samples. Across the study area, there is some evidence of past mining and exploration activity, indicating that these soils may be locally disturbed. The shallow mineralised quartz veins were exploited for gold by the Romans. Several galleries were constructed during the 2nd World War, probably for the exploration of quartz–cassiterite–wolframite veins. However, the main mineralised body in depth was never explored. The results of metal fractionation show different partitions for the three elements. Total Cd concentrations in these soils are low, with a median value of 0.1 mg/kg. In average, 12% of total Cd is adsorbed by clays and/or co-precipitated with carbonates, and 19% is bounded to Fe–Mn oxyhydroxides. However, the low concentrations indicate that the metal does not represent an immediate risk to human health. For Pb, metal fractionation shows that, on average, 22% of Pb is adsorbed by amorphous Fe and Mn oxides, but the samples from the northern part of the area have the major fractions of Pb in soluble forms. The low probability of exposure in this part of the study area decreases the risk posed by this heavy metal. Total As concentrations in the Marrancos soils are extremely high. A large area has As concentrations above 1,000 mg/kg. For As, metal fractions in the sulphide phase vary between 84 and 98% in the studied samples. But one sample has 20% of total As in easily reducible forms, corresponding to a partial concentration of 1,800 mg/kg that has a high probability of being bioavailable. The most labile As forms occur at the southern part of the area, where the probability of exposure is higher and the risk of human health increases in the same order. From the three studied potentially harmful elements, As is certainly the element of concern.