The effect of moisture content within multilayer protective clothing on protection from radiation and steam

The moisture from skin sweat and atmospheric water affects the thermal protective performance provided by multilayer protective clothing. Four levels of moisture content were selected to evaluate the impact of moisture on thermal protection under dry (thermal radiation) and wet (thermal radiation and low-pressure steam) heat exposure. Also, the role of moisture and its relationship with exposure time were analyzed based on skin heat flux and Henriques integral value. The addition of moisture to a fabric system was found to result in differences in second-degree and third-degree skin burn times. When moisture is added to a fabric system, it both acts as a thermal conductor to present a negative effect and provides a positive effect owing to thermal storage of water and evaporative heat loss. The positive or negative effects of moisture are mainly dependent on the thermal exposure time, the moisture content and the presence of hot steam.     

The influence of sweating on the heat transmission properties of cold protective clothing studied with a sweating thermal manikin.

One of the objectives of the European SUBZERO project was to study the influence of sweat evaporation and condensation on the heat transmission properties of cold protective clothing. With the sweating thermal manikin Coppelius, water vapour transfer through and water condensation in the clothing can be determined simultaneously with the thermal insulation. In this study, 4 cold protective ensembles, intended for use temperatures between 0 and -50 degrees C, were measured with the dry manikin and at 2 different sweating rates. In addition, the ensembles were measured with non-sweating thermal manikins and in wear trials.     

Moisture effects in heat transfer through clothing systems for wildland firefighters.

Wildland firefighters work in unfavourable environments involving both heat and moisture. Moisture in clothing systems worn by wildland firefighters may increase or decrease heat transfer, depending on its source and location in the clothing system, location on the body, timing of application and degree of sorption. In this experiment, 4 outerwear/underwear combinations were exposed to 1 of 5 different conditions varying on amount and location of moisture. The fabric systems were then exposed to either a high-heat-flux flame exposure (83 kW/m(2)) or a low-heat-flux radiant exposure (10 kW/m(2)). Under high-heat-flux flame exposures, external moisture tended to decrease heat transfer through the fabric systems, while internal moisture tended to increase heat transfer. Under low-heat-flux radiant exposures, internal moisture decreased heat transfer through the fabric systems. The nature and extent of such differences was fabric dependent. Implications for test protocol development are discussed.     

常用高、低温防护服着装舒适性研究

防护服装的全面评价通常涉及安全性、工效学特性等多个方面。在常用高、低温防护服隔热性能研究基础上,对服装的舒适性进行了初步研究,以期为高低温防护服的选用和设计改进等提供依据。本研究应用热平板仪、人工气候室等研究设备以及真人着装实验,对高低温作业典型工种常用的耐高温防护服和低温防护服的舒适性能进行了研究。研究结果显示,不同类型高、低温防护服的透气性、透湿性、着装压力、肢体活动角度等均表现出一定差异,防护服的面料、结构和工艺等均影响到其整体舒适性,并提出了相应的改善建议。     

常用高、低温防护服隔热性能研究

为评价常用类型高、低温防护服的防护性能,本研究应用热平板仪、人工气候室和暖体假人等研究设备,对高低温作业典型工种常用的耐高温防护服和低温防护服的隔热性能进行了研究。研究结果显示,不同类型高、低温防护服的服装面料、服装整体的隔热性表现出一定差异,模拟环境下的着装生理学测试结果也存在不同,防护服的面料、结构和工艺等均影响到其整体隔热性能。防护服装的全面评价通常涉及安全性、工效学特性等多个方面,有必要从服装的舒适性、工效学特性等方面进一步研究,并开展大规模的现场人体穿着实验,从而为高低温防护服的选用和设计改进等提供依据。     

Age-related thermal strain in men while wearing radiation protective clothing during short-term exercise in the heat.

The aim of the study was to compare heat strain among different age groups of men in protective clothing during short-term physical work. Eight young (20-29 years), 6 middle-aged (41-55 years), and 6 older (58-65 years) men exercised for 30 min on a cycle ergometer (40% V(O2 max)) in 2 hot environments with a similar WBGT (ca. 26 degrees C): once with minimal clothing without infrared radiation (E1), and once with aluminized protective clothing under infrared radiation (E2). All subjects had sedentary jobs, but only the older subjects were physically active in their leisure-time. Body temperatures, heart rate, sweat rate, and subjective feelings were determined during the tests. Higher thermal strain was observed in E2 than in E1. No age-related differences in thermal strain were observed in either experiment indicating that active older men can tolerate short work periods with protective clothing in the heat as well as younger sedentary men.     

Optimizing the performance of phase-change materials in personal protective clothing systems.

Phase-change materials (PCM) can be used to reduce thermal stress and improve thermal comfort for workers wearing protective clothing. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of PCM in protective clothing used in simulated work situations. We hypothesized that it would be possible to optimize cooling performance with a design that focuses on careful positioning of PCM, minimizing total insulation and facilitating moisture transport. Thermal stress and thermal comfort were estimated through measurement of body heat production, body temperatures, sweat production, relative humidity in clothing and subjective ratings of thermal comfort, thermal sensitivity and perception of wetness. Experiments were carried out using 2 types of PCM, the crystalline dehydrate of sodium sulphate and microcapsules in fabrics. The results of 1 field and 2 laboratory experimental series were conclusive in that reduced thermal stress and improved thermal comfort were related to the amount and distribution of PCM, reduced sweat production and adequate transport of moisture.     

Heat Gain From Thermal Radiation Through Protective Clothing With Different Insulation,Reflectivity and Vapour Permeability

The heat transferred through protective clothing under long wave radiation compared to a reference condition without radiant stress was determined in thermal manikin experiments. The influence of clothing insulation and reflectivity, and the interaction with wind and wet underclothing were considered. Garments with different outer materials and colours and additionally an aluminised reflective suit were combined with different number and types of dry and pre-wetted underwear layers. Under radiant stress, whole body heat loss decreased, i.e., heat gain occurred compared to the reference. This heat gain increased with radiation intensity, and decreased with air velocity and clothing insulation. Except for the reflective outer layer that showed only minimal heat gain over the whole range of radiation intensities, the influence of the outer garments’ material and colour was small with dry clothing. Wetting the underclothing for simulating sweat accumulation, however, caused differing effects with higher heat gain in less permeable garments.     

Numerical simulations of heat and moisture transport in thermal protective clothing under flash fire conditions.

A numerical model of heat and moisture transport in thermal protective clothing during exposure to a flash fire was introduced. The model was developed with the assumption that textiles are treated as porous media. The numerical model predictions were compared with experimental data from different fabric systems and configurations. Additionally, with the introduction of a skin model, the parameters that affect the performance of thermal protective clothing were investigated.     

消防服用织物材料热湿舒适性综合评价

为提高消防服的热湿舒适性能,减少消防员在灭火救援过程中的热应激反应,基于现有消防服用织物材料的物性参数和单项热湿舒适性指标,采用多元回归分析的方法综合评价消防服各层材料的热湿舒适性能,研究各外层材料的单项热湿舒适性指标与物性参数之间的关系。结果表明:以黑色芳砜伦为外层材料、Goretex为防水透气层材料、Nomex针刺毡为隔热层材料、Nomex/FR-VISCOSE(50%Nomex,50%阻燃黏胶)为舒适层材料的消防服热湿舒适性最好,并得出织物的吸湿速率常数、透湿率和干燥率与物性参数之间的显著多元回归模型。     

Hot steam transfer through heat protective clothing layers.

The aim of this study was to analyse the transfer of steam through different types of textile layers as a function of sample parameters such as thickness and permeability. In order to simulate the human body, a cylinder releasing defined amounts of moisture was also used. The influence of sweating on heat and mass transfer was assessed. The results show that in general impermeable materials offer better protection against hot steam than semi-permeable ones. The transfer of steam depended on the water vapour permeability of the samples, but also on their thermal insulation and their thickness. Increasing the thickness of the samples with a spacer gave a larger increase in protection with the impermeable samples compared to semi-permeable materials. Measurements with pre-wetted samples showed a reduction in steam protection in any case. On the other hand, the measurements with a sweating cylinder showed a beneficial effect of sweating.     

Thermal strain in fire fighters while wearing task-fitted versus en 469:2005 protective clothing during a prolonged rescue drill.

Fire fighters are normally overprotected during their working hours because of the tendency to keep the personal protection level sufficiently high in case of the worst possible scenarios. This study investigated the effects of task-fitted protective clothing on thermal strain in fire fighters as compared to EN 469:2005 protective clothing during a prolonged (2 1/2 hrs) job-related rescue drill under neutral and hot climates. The subjects were 23 healthy, physically fit professional male fire fighters aged 26-44 years. Measurements included cardiovascular and thermal responses and subjective assessments. Wearing task-fitted clothing during rescue tasks in a neutral climate considerably reduced total thermal and cardiovascular strain in prolonged rescue work. The fire fighters also perceived physical work as significantly harder on average, and reported more intense subjective discomfort while wearing EN 469:2005 as compared to task-fitted clothing.     

屏蔽服冷却系统对人体表面温度影响的研究*

为科学有效地论证多种方式组合的冷却屏蔽服在不同环境条件下对人体表面温度控制的效果,需要对冷却系统及人体敏感部位发热量进行客观评估。通过对5名健康男性的高温测试,探究人体在不同环境温度下体表温度的变化,得出胸部、背部及额头为热量最高部位,并构建以“人体-降温屏蔽服-外界环境”为主体的冷却系统数值模型,对不同环境中的屏蔽服冷却效果展开研究,分析穿戴冷却屏蔽服时人体躯干部分的温度分布及影响。结果表明:在屏蔽服中靠近胸部、背部部位引入相变材料和风扇,均可帮助人体降低体温,提高舒适度。     

Performance of firefighters' protective clothing after heat exposure.

Heat and mechanical protection properties of 6 fabric combinations commonly used in firefighters' protective clothing were assessed before and after different heat treatment. It was shown that after heat exposure, the values obtained were generally lower than in the original state. The mechanical properties of the materials were more affected by heat than by heat protective properties. In 2 cases, degradation started before a visible change in the material could be observed, which might be potentially dangerous for the end user who will not realize the alteration of the material.     

服装商店火灾的实体灭火试验研究

为研究服装商店火灾蔓延和燃烧的特性及其对消防部队灭火作战的影响,按照真实的场景布置并进行了两次通风条件不同的服装商店火灾的实体灭火试验.试验结果显示由于服装商店内可燃物较多,燃烧耗氧量大,火灾的蔓延和强度受通风状况的影响较大.在供氧充足的情况下,服装商店火灾的蔓延发展可以分为引燃阶段、缓慢发展阶段和快速发展阶段三个阶段.当火灾发展到快速发展阶段的时候,火场的温度和烟气浓度很高,能见度低,灭火困难,导致灭火时间长,消防用水量大.     

Calculation of clothing insulation by serial and parallel methods: effects on clothing choice by IREQ and thermal responses in the cold.

Cold protective clothing was studied in 2 European Union projects. The objectives were (a) to examine different insulation calculation methods as measured on a manikin (serial or parallel), for the prediction of cold stress (IREQ); (b) to consider the effects of cold protective clothing on metabolic rate; (c) to evaluate the movement and wind correction of clothing insulation values. Tests were carried out on 8 subjects. The results showed the possibility of incorporating the effect of increases in metabolic rate values due to thick cold protective clothing into the IREQ model. Using the higher thermal insulation value from the serial method in the IREQ prediction, would lead to unacceptable cooling of the users. Thus, only the parallel insulation calculation method in EN 342:2004 should be used. The wind and motion correction equation (No. 2) gave realistic values for total resultant insulation; dynamic testing according to EN 342:2004 may be omitted.     

水分影响下阴燃传播及气相反应发生的研究

为了解阴燃传播及其反应状态发生变化的特点,采用一半干燥一半加湿的聚氨酯泡沫材料进行实验。在自然对流条件下,阴燃由下到上从干材料传播到湿材料。各次实验中阴燃在干材料部分都保持稳定传播,而湿材料部分所设计的含水率则从8.4%到21.7%。水分的吸热作用使阴燃状态随含水率大小发生极大的变化。在含水率较小时,阴燃仍能继续传播但温度和速度都有所下降;含水率稍大时,阴燃反应受到抑制,在内部有氧气剩余的情况下则会发生气相反应;当含水率进一步增大,阴燃就会熄灭。如果阴燃能传播到材料末端,外界的大量氧气进入阴燃区将使其向明火发生转化。     

相变调温防护服用织物的阻燃性能研究*

为提高相变调温防护服的阻燃性能,以保障工作人员的生命安全,系统开展阻燃型相变微胶囊涂层织物的制备与阻燃性能研究。选取2种相变温度的相变微胶囊、2种阻燃基布,利用干法涂层工艺制备相变微胶囊涂层织物;选取2种阻燃剂,以45%和75%的比例涂覆在相变微胶囊涂层的表面,制成16种阻燃型相变微胶囊涂层织物。基于锥形量热仪进行涂层织物阻燃性能测试,分析阻燃剂对涂层织物阻燃性能的影响。结果表明:与未进行阻燃整理的涂层织物相比,有机硅阻燃剂涂层织物的总热释放量平均下降42.22%,磷氮型阻燃剂涂层织物的总热释放量平均下降25.07%,并且随着阻燃剂含量的增加,总热释放量呈下降趋势。另外,有机硅型阻燃剂明显降低了热释放速率与总热释放量,而磷氮型阻燃剂有效地延长了织物开始释放热量的时间和热释放速率达到峰值的时间。因此,2种阻燃剂从不同角度优化了相变微胶囊涂层织物的阻燃性能,提高了相变调温防护服的使用安全性。     

服装面积因子的测评

利用暖体假人测定服装热阻时,考虑到着装后服装外表面积变大导致的边界空气层变化对服装的基本或固有热阻的影响,需引入服装面积因子的概念。本文首先阐述了服装面积因子的定义和应用：接着从直接法和间接法两大方法归纳现有测评服装面积因子的研究：最后对服装面积因子与热阻间的关系做了详细论述。     

Assessing gait changes in firefighters due to fatigue and protective clothing

Each year, roughly 11,000 firefighters are injured as a result of slips, trips and falls, which account for over 25% of all fireground injuries. Wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) can increase risk of fall-related injuries due to its weight, restrictiveness, and increased heat stress. Modification of PPE may serve to mitigate firefighter injuries related to loss of balance and falls. We examined the effects of choosing ‘enhanced’ protective clothing (lightweight, breathable, and less restrictive compared to typical firefighting PPE) and simulated firefighting tasks (18-min bout over four activities) on subsequent gait performance. To assess the effect of wearing protective clothing and firefighting activity, seven gait parameters and three movement errors were assessed during level and obstacle-crossing walking tasks. Forty-four firefighters wore one of two types of PPE (‘Standard’, ‘Enhanced’) during three testing conditions (baseline in station uniform, pre-firefighting activity in PPE, and post-firefighting activity in PPE). The effect of donning any PPE was found to significantly impair gait performance. Fatigue may impact effective mobility since more movement errors were observed during post-activity than pre-activity assessments. Although the Enhanced PPE did not lead to any significant differences in gait parameters compared to Standard PPE, participants in Enhanced PPE made twice as many movement errors, potentially attributed to lack of familiarity with the gear. These results suggest that wearing firefighting PPE and heat-stress induced fatigue are associated with reduced gait performance and increased risk for tripping over obstacles.