Environmental occurrence and risk of organic UV filters and stabilizers in multiple matrices in Norway

Eight organic UV filters and stabilizers were quantitatively determined in wastewater sludge and effluent, landfill leachate, sediments, and marine and freshwater biota. Crab, prawn and cod from Oslofjord, and perch, whitefish and burbot from Lake Mjøsa were selected in order to evaluate the potential for trophic accumulation. All of the cod livers analysed were contaminated with at least 1 UV filter, and a maximum concentration of almost 12 μg/g wet weight for octocrylene (OC) was measured in one individual. 80% of the cod livers contained OC, and approximately 50% of cod liver and prawn samples contained benzophenone (BP3). Lower concentrations and detection frequencies were observed in freshwater species and the data of most interest is the 4 individual whitefish that contained both BP3 and ethylhexylmethoxycinnamate (EHMC) with maximum concentrations of almost 200 ng/g wet weight. The data shows a difference in the loads of UV filters entering receiving water dependent on the extent of wastewater treatment. Primary screening alone is insufficient for the removal of selected UV filters (BP3, Padimate, EHMC, OC, UV-234, UV-327, UV-328, UV-329). Likely due in part to the hydrophobic nature of the majority of the UV filters studied, particulate loading and organic carbon content appear to be related to concentrations of UV filters in landfill leachate and an order of magnitude difference in these parameters correlates with an order of magnitude difference in the effluent concentrations of selected UV filters (Fig. 2). From the data, it is possible that under certain low flow conditions selected organic UV filters may pose a risk to surface waters but under the present conditions the risk is low, but some UV filters will potentially accumulate through the trophic food chain.     

Electrical augmentation of granular bed filters

A study of the enhancement of the collection efficiency of granular bed filters by electrical means is reported. By applying electric fields of a few kV/cm (DC or AC) across a bed of insulating granules, the efficiency for submicron charged aerosol is greatly increased, to the point where the efficiency minimum normally observed with such filters in the size range 0.1–1 μm is removed. The performance of such filters is explored as a function of granule size, applied field, face velocity and charge state of the entering aerosol with both a bench-scale flow system (to 40 ft³/min; 1.1 m³/min) and a wind tunnel (to 600 ft³/min; 17 m³/min). Some theoretical estimates are made to identify the most likely physical mechanism of electrical enhancement, and a number of potential application possibilities are discussed.     

Emission modelling and validation of VOCs' source strengths in air-conditioned office premises

An emission model for indoor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) based on mass balance considerations has been presented and validated under steady state conditions. Comparison were made for the measured and predicted concentrations of 37 selected VOCs and TVOC through a case intervention study on the filters of the ventilation system in a new commercial air-conditioned office building. The intervention involved replacing media filters with electronic and carbon filtration. TVOC and 37 compounds selected for their health and comfort impact, representation of major chemical classes that occur in indoor air and their utility as markers of pollution sources were studied. The concentration levels predicted by the model were compared with actual measurements. Twenty-five target compounds and the TVOC were adequately described by the model where the measured concentrations were in agreement with the predicted concentrations. Modeling of the remaining 12 compounds was found to be affected by the emission rates that were occupant related.     

Determination of parabens and benzophenone-type UV filters in human placenta. First description of the existence of benzyl paraben and benzophenone-4

UV filters and parabens (PBs) are chemicals used in daily personal care and hygiene products to protect materials and humans from the adverse effects of UV radiation and to preserve the integrity of the formulation, respectively. Several studies highlight their widespread environmental occurrence and endocrine disrupting effects. However, little is known about human exposure to these compounds. The objective of this study was to investigate the exposure of human embryos and foetuses to endocrine disrupting UV filters and PBs.Placentas from volunteer mothers in Barcelona were collected at delivery after informed, written consent by the pregnant women. UV filters and parabens were analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The excellent performance of the method allowed measuring the target compounds in human placental tissue at low ng/g fresh weight level. The detection frequency of the selected compounds was in the range 17–100%. Benzophenone-1, methyl paraben, butyl paraben and benzyl paraben were detected in all samples. The highest measured concentration corresponded to methyl paraben, 11.77 ng/g fresh weight. Reported concentrations of benzophenone-4 and benzyl paraben constitute the first evidence about their accumulation in placenta. The results obtained corroborate that foetuses are exposed to a wide diversity of UV filters and PBs via the placenta.     

Role of ion track filters in environmental surveillance.

Ion track filters (ITFs) are produced by physiochemical treatments to thin films of polymers and mica irradiated by heavy ions. These ITFs have many applications in the fields of science and technology. In the present investigation, the developed ITFs from polycarbonate films have been used to filter bacteria of various types in water. It is observed that the electric conduction through these filters depends upon the concentration of contaminants and pore diameter of filters. Filtration experiments were carried out using both single and multipore filters. Other applications related to environment surveillance have also been reported.     

222Rn and 210Pb in the Arctic summer air

As part of an extensive air chemistry programme, during summer 1980, on board the Swedish ice-breaker ‘Ymer’, levels of ²²²Rn (radon) and its long-lived daughters ²¹⁰Pb and ²¹⁰Po were measured. The radon was trapped on charcoal and the long-lived daugther products sampled on filters on a daily basis. In addition, short-lived progenies were followed continuously on the filters in order to achieve a time resolution of about one hour. The concentrations of radon and ²¹⁰Pb in the Arctic summer air north of latitude 75° N averaged 75 ± 21 (1 sd) and 0·075 ± 0·028 mBqm⁻³, r respectively. During a two week period of persistent polar winds, the mean radon concentration was 19 ±5 mBq m⁻³. During such ‘Arctic background’ conditions, radon exhalation from the sea may contribute significantly to the measured radon-in-air concentration. It is shown that steady-state equilibrium models, applied to an air mass over the sea, overstimate the aerosol residence-time calculated from activity ratios. Time-dependent calculations indicate a mean aerosol residence time of 4 to 7 d in Arctic air. Good agreement is observed between radon levels and the time since the air mass left larger areas. Both the ²²²Rn and the long-lived daughter measurements are insensitive to contamination from ship and local settlement.     

Polonium-210 budget in cigarettes

Due to the relatively high activity concentrations of (210)Po and (210)Pb that are found in tobacco and its products, cigarette smoking highly increases the internal intake of both radionuclides and their concentrations in the lung tissues. That might contribute significantly to an increase in the internal radiation dose and in the number of instances of lung cancer observed among smokers. Samples of most frequently smoked fine and popular brands of cigarettes were collected from those available on the Egyptian market. (210)Po activity concentrations were measured by alpha spectrometry, using surface barrier detectors, following the radiochemical separation of polonium. Samples of fresh tobacco, wrapping paper, fresh filters, ash and post-smoking filters were spiked with (208)Po for chemical recovery calculation. The samples were dissolved using mineral acids (HNO(3), HCl and HF). Polonium was spontaneously plated-out on stainless steel disks from diluted HCl solution. The (210)Po activity concentration in smoke was estimated on the basis of its activity in fresh tobacco and wrapping paper, fresh filter, ash and post-smoking filters. The percentages of (210)Po activity concentrations that were recovered from the cigarette tobacco to ash, post-smoking filters, and smokes were assessed. The results of this work indicate that the average (range) activity concentration of (210)Po in cigarette tobacco was 16.6 (9.7-22.5) mBq/cigarette. The average percentages of (210)Po content in fresh tobacco plus wrapping paper that were recovered by post-smoking filters, ash and smoke were 4.6, 20.7 and 74.7, respectively. Cigarette smokers, who are smoking one pack (20 cigarettes) per day, are inhaling on average 123 mBq/d of (210)Po and (210)Pb each. The annual effective doses were calculated on the basis of (210)Po and (210)Pb intake with the cigarette smoke. The mean values of the annual effective dose for smokers (one pack per day) were estimated to be 193 and 251 microSv from (210)Po and (210)Pb, respectively.     

Detection of 210Po on filter papers 16 years after use for the collection of short-lived radon progeny in a room

Radon gas was allowed to accumulate in its radium source and then injected into a 36 m(3) test room, resulting in an initial radon concentration of 15 kBq m(-3). Filter papers were used to collect the short-lived radon progeny and thus to measure the Potential Alpha Energy Concentration (PAEC) in-situ in the year 1984 at different times and conditions according to the experimental design. The radon progeny collected on the filter papers were studied as a function of aerosol particle concentration ranging from 10(2)-10(5) particles cm(-3) in three different experiments. The highest aerosol particle concentration was generated by indoor cigarette smoking. Those filters were stored after the experiment, and were used after 16 years to study the activity of the radon long-lived alpha emitter progeny, (210)Po (T(1/2)=138 days). This isotope is separated from the short-lived progeny by (210)Pb beta emitter with 22.3 years half-life. After 16 years' storage of these filters, each filter paper was sandwiched and wrapped between two CR-39 nuclear track detectors, to put the detectors in contact with the surfaces of different filters, for 337 days. Correlation between the PAEC measured using filter papers in the year 1984 and the activity of long-lived alpha emitter (210)Po on the same filter papers measured in the year 2000 were studied. The results of the (210)Po activity showed a very good correlation of 0.92 with the PAEC 16 years ago. The results also depict that the PAEC and (210)Po activity in indoor air increased with the increase of aerosol particle concentration, which shows the attachment of short-lived radon progeny with the aerosol particles. The experiment proves that indoor cigarette smoking is a major source of aerosol particles carrying radon progeny and, thus, indoor cigarette smoking is an additional source of internal radiation hazard to the occupants whether smoker or non-smoker.     

The economic value of coastal waters as nutrient filters for the Baltic Sea

This paper calculates the economic value of coastal zones as nutrient filters by using the replacement cost method, which implies that the value is calculated as the savings in costs from reaching politically determined future nutrient target. It is shown that the magnitude of this value depends on the cost of other abatement measures besides nutrient filters of coastal zones, the stringency and timing of the nutrient target, discount rate, and spatial and temporal dispersions of cleaning impacts. The application to the Baltic Sea indicates that the value can amount to approximately 600 billions of SEK (1 Euro = 9.01 SEK, June 3, 2012), which corresponds to 1.9 % of the Baltic Sea region’s total gross domestic product. The largest gains are obtained by Poland because this country faces the largest financial burdens of meeting targets.     

Removal of radionuclides at a waterworks

A waterworks with an average production rate of 1.3 m3 s(-1), providing several large cities in the province of Scania with drinking water has been studied regarding its capacity to remove several natural and anthropogenic radionuclides. The raw water is surface water from lake Bolmen which is transported through an 80 km long tunnel in the bedrock before it enters the waterworks. The method used for purification is a combination of coagulation-flocculation and filtration in sand filters. Two different purification lines are currently in use, one using Al2(SO4)3 as a coagulant and one using FeCl3. After coagulation and flocculation the precipitate is removed and the water is passed through two different sand filters (rapid filtration and slow filtration). Water samples were collected at the lake, the inlet to the waterworks, after each of the flocculation basins (Al2(SO4)3 and FeCl3), after rapid filtration and from the municipal distribution network. The samples were analysed with respect to their content of uranium, thorium, polonium, radium, plutonium and caesium. The results show a high removal capacity for uranium (about 85%), thorium (>90%), plutonium (>95%) and polonium (>90% in the coagulation-flocculation process) while caesium, strontium and radium pass through the purification process with almost unchanged activity concentrations. During transportation of the water in the tunnel it was also observed that infiltration of groundwater leads to a change in isotopic ratios and/or activity concentrations for the naturally occurring radionuclides and plutonium.     

Water vapor in polluted Cairo atmosphere

Hourly measurements for each of the five solar bands selected by the filters of the Volz multichannel sunphotometer together with ambient air temperature and relative humidity are carried out. Figures and tables are given to show variation of precipitable water, relative, humidity, vapor pressure, ambient air temperature, and turbidity. An empirical relation is obtained to show the variation of vapor pressure at ground surface with precipitable water layer through the atmosphere of Cairo.     

Fallout deposition at Monaco following the chernobyl accident

Increased atmospheric radioactivity from the Chernobyl accident was first detected on air filters taken in Monaco on 30 April 1986, with maximum activities of 10, 2·9, 1·5 and 0·84 Bqm^dash3 for ¹³²Te, ¹³¹ I, ¹³⁷Cs and ¹³⁴Cs, respectively, occurring about 1–3 May 1986. About one week later the activities had fallen to about 1% of peak values. A total of 33 radioisotopes were detected. The integrated inventories were significantly less than at other sites to the east. Preliminary results of plutonium analyses are also presented, together with other deposition data in rain and soil.     

Ecosystem services and hydroelectricity in Central America: modelling service flows with fuzzy logic and expert knowledge

Because ecosystem services are generally not produced and used in the same place, their assessment should consider the flows of services from ecosystems to users. These flows depend on the characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems and users, the spatial relationships between them, and the presence of filters or barriers between ecosystems and users. The objective of this paper is to map the ecosystem services provided to the Costa Rican and Nicaraguan hydroelectric sectors, which are crucial sectors for national sustainable development and depend directly on hydrological ecosystem services. The paper presents an approach for modelling the flows of multiple services from diverse ecosystems to diverse users through different kinds of filters in a landscape. The approach uses expert knowledge and fuzzy numbers to handle uncertainties. The analyses for Costa Rica and Nicaragua show how the approach helps identify priority areas for the conservation and restoration of forests for the services they provide to the hydroelectric sector. As such, it is a useful tool for defining spatially targeted policies for the conservation of ecosystem services and for involving the users of ecosystem services in ecosystem management.     

Airborne dissemination of bacteria from sewage treatment plants

During the last 5 yr, the air of sewage treatment plants was examined bacteriologically under different climatic conditions. Methods of examination were sedimentation on nutrient agar, membrane filtration and the use of an impinger. At each sampling site wind velocity and humidity of air were measured. In addition to colony counts, the presence of fecal indicators (E. coli, Clostridia), Salmonella, non-agglutinable cholera vibrios and Pseudomonas aeruginosa was determined. The results were as follows: The formation of mist above the sewage in aeration tanks was preferably observed during the winter season. Correspondingly, the bacteriological results were less favourable in winter-time; trickling filters are also capable of spreading bacteria into ambient air; E. coli could be found up to a distance of 300 m downwind from the aeration tanks, Salmonella up to a distance of 10 m; higher wind velocity resulted in a higher number of positive findings, sunshine diminished it, covering of the aeration tanks clearly resulted in a lower number of positive findings, parallel examinations performed at other sampling sites far from sewage treatment plants, such as underground stations, shops, or sports facilities revealed that the bacterial level at such sites was much lower than in the air of sewage treatment plants. Quantitative studies (Salmonella was taken as an example) revealed that the dissemination by air was low in relation to the Salmonella content of the sewage itself, so that the infectious dose was hardly attained by direct ingestion. Nevertheless, hygienic measures, such as hand washing, use of protecting clothes and avoidance of contact with foods in the open air should be performed in sewage treatment plants so that the infectious dose also cannot be indirectly reached. Beyond this, the possibility cannot be ruled out that conditions are quite different for other pathogens having much lower infectious doses.     

ASSESSMENT OF ANTHROPOGENIC LOADS ON LANDSCAPES AS A TOOL TO DETERMINE THE POTENTIAL FOR SUSTAINABLE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT: CASE STUDY FROM AZERBAIJAN

In order to determine the potential for sustainable regional development of the Caspian coastal zone, a study was made for the Khachmaz–Absheron zone of Azerbaijan. An evaluation was performed to assess the anthropogenic load on landscapes. Using the 8-point scale offered by Isachenko [2001, Ecological Geography of Russia, Saint Petersburg University Press, Saint Petersburg] for the indicators of agricultural, industrial, urban and integral anthropogenic loads, we did a preliminary ranking of the provinces in the Khachmaz–Absheron zone of Azerbaijan for the each indicator taken separately. Vital statistics were used as a supplementary indicator of environmental conditions in the region. By comparing the data for provinces with each other and the data on Azerbaijan average, we have classified the provinces into 4 groups according to specific combinations of the indicators. Each group of provinces has distinctive environmental conditions and features for sustainable development. The classification makes it possible to develop certain recommendations for the regional sustainable development. Measures to be implemented within the Azerbaijan State Program on Social and Economic Development of Regions are also discussed. In the Khachmaz province, production of ecologically pure products is highly recommended. Special attention should be given to the development of tourism and recreational institutions in the Khachmaz, Khizi and Devechi provinces. Recommendations for these provinces include further development of industry on the basis of modern safe technologies. The irrigation and drainage networks should be reconstructed. The reconstruction will make it possible to reduce water loss and to increase the productivity of agriculture. In the Absheron province, Baku and Sumgait cities environmental systems are overloaded, and so the works at highly polluting enterprises must be stopped, the enterprises have to be re-equipped (old filters must be changed first of all) or relocated from the area (a decrease of environmental risk should be in the focus of attention). For improving of air quality, green areas should increase. There is a need to reduce urban traffic density and to reconstruct highways. Use of old vehicles must be forbidden or restricted, and transition to environmentally friendly fuel should be supported in every way possible. It is necessary to bring the waste management system and sanitary landfills up to international standards, and to improve the water supply and sewerage systems.     

Inhalation of 210Po and 210Pb from cigarette smoking in Poland.

The carcinogenic etfect of 210Po and 210Pb with respect to lung cancer is an important problem in many countries with very high cigarette consumption. Poland has one of the highest consumptions of cigarettes in the world. The results of 210Po determination on the 14 most frequently smoked brands of cigarettes which constitute over 70% of the total cigarette consumption in Poland are presented and discussed. Moreover, the polonium content in cigarette smoke was estimated on the basis of its activity in fresh tobaccos, ash, fresh filters and post-smoking filters. The annual effective doses were calculated on the basis of 210Po and 210Pb inhalation with the cigarette smoke. The results of this work indicate that Polish smokers who smoke one pack (20 cigarettes) per day inhale from 20 to 215 mBq of 210Po and 210Pb each. The mean values of the annual effective dose for smokers were estimated to be 35 and 70 microSv from 210Po and 210Pb, respectively. For persons who smoke two packs of cigarettes with higher radionuclide concentrations, the effective dose is much higher (471 microSv yr(-1)) in comparison with the intake in diet. Therefore, cigarettes and the absorption through the respiratory system are the main sources and the principal pathway of 210Po and 210Pb intake of smokers in Poland.     

Arsenic contamination of groundwater in the Terai region of Nepal: an overview of health concerns and treatment options

A review of published information on the arsenic contamination of groundwater in the Terai regions of Nepal showed that the source was mainly geogenic due to the dissolution of the arsenic-bearing minerals. Clinical observations of patients in the arsenic affected districts revealed chronic arsenic poisoning from drinking water. Half a million people inhabiting the region are believed to have been exposed to arsenic levels greater than 50 microg/L in their drinking water. Thirty-one percent of the population (3.5 million) in the region are estimated to have been exposed to arsenic levels between 10 and 50 microg/L. Iron assisted biosand filters currently distributed and in operation are a suitable alternative to mitigate the interim arsenic standard of 50 microg/L, as set by the Nepal Government. Arsenic biosand filters were also effective in removing bacteria and viruses from drinking water in laboratory and field tests. However, groundwater treatment targeting cluster communities in the Terai region is the sustainable way of mitigating the arsenic problem.     

The reduction of indoor formaldehyde gas and that emanating from urea formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI)

It is shown that the addition of ammonia to urea formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI) can reduce the release of formaldehyde from the foam. Other amines are also effective, indicating that the residual acid may be an important cause of the UFFI decomposition. Measurements of pH slurries of the foam confirm this. By circulating indoor air through filters treated with polymeric amines, it is possible to reduce the formaldehyde level in homes.     

Efficiency of the activated carbon filtration in the natural organic matter removal

The removal and transformation of natural organic matter were monitored in the different stages of the drinking water treatment train. Several methods to measure the quantity and quality of organic matter were used. The full-scale treatment sequence consisted of coagulation, flocculation, clarification by flotation, disinfection with chlorine dioxide, activated carbon filtration and post-chlorination. High-performance size-exclusion chromatography separation was used to determine the changes in the humic substances content during the purification process; in addition, a UV absorbance at wavelength 254 nm and total organic carbon amount were measured. A special aim was to study the performance and the capacity of the activated carbon filtration in the natural organic matter removal. Four of the activated carbon filters were monitored over the period of 1 year. Depending on the regeneration of the activated carbon filters, filtration was effective to a degree but did not significantly remove the smallest molar mass organic matter fraction. Activated carbon filtration was most effective in the removal of intermediate molar mass compounds (range 1,000-4,000 g/mol). Regeneration of the carbon improved the removal capacity considerably, but efficiency was returned to a normal level after few months.     

On monitoring anthropogenic airborne uranium concentrations and (235)U/(238)U isotopic ratio by Lichen - bio-indicator technique

Lichens are widely used to assess the atmospheric pollution by heavy metals and radionuclides. However, few studies are available in publications on using lichens to qualitatively assess the atmospheric pollution levels. The paper presents research results applying epiphytic lichens as bio-monitors of quantitative atmospheric contamination with uranium. The observations were conducted during 2.5 years in the natural environment. Two experimental sites were used: one in the vicinity of a uranium contamination source, the other one - at a sufficient distance away to represent the background conditions. Air and lichens were sampled at both sites monthly. Epiphytic lichens Hypogimnia physodes were used as bio-indicators. Lichen samples were taken from various trees at about 1.5m from the ground. Air was sampled with filters at sampling stations. The uranium content in lichen and air samples as well as isotopic mass ratios (235)U/(238)U were measured by mass-spectrometer technique after uranium pre-extraction. Measured content of uranium were 1.45 mgkg(-1) in lichen at 2.09 E-04 microgm(-3) in air and 0.106 mgkg(-1) in lichen at 1.13 E-05 microgm(-3) in air. The relationship of the uranium content in atmosphere and that in lichens was determined, C(AIR)=exp(1.1 x C(LICHEN)-12). The possibility of separate identification of natural and man-made uranium in lichens was demonstrated in principle.