The effects of proximal and distal goals on performance on a moderately complex task

The effect of a proximal plus a distal goal was investigated relative to setting only a distal goal or urging participants to do their best. Young adults (N=39) were paid on a piece rate basis to make toys. An analysis of variance revealed that the amount of money earned by the participants who were urged to ‘do your best’ was significantly greater than the amount of money earned by the participants who were assigned a distal goal. However, the amount of money earned by the participants who were assigned proximal goals, in addition to a distal goal, was significantly greater than the amount of money earned by the participants in the ‘do your best’ condition. The correlation between perceived self‐efficacy and the amount of money earned was 0.45 (p<0.01). Perceived self‐efficacy significantly increased only for those participants in the proximal plus distal goal condition. Proximal goals, through self‐efficacy and performance feedback, appear to have focused attention on task appropriate strategies. The results suggest an informational explanation of proximal goals as opposed to a motivational one through goal commitment. Implications of these findings for mentoring and training are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of distal learning,outcome, and proximal goals on a moderately complex task

The effects of learning versus outcome distal goals in conjunction with proximal goals were investigated in a laboratory setting using a class‐scheduling task. The participants (n = 96) needed to acquire knowledge in order to perform the task correctly. A ‘do your best’ outcome goal led to higher performance than the assignment of a specific, difficult outcome goal. However, the assignment of a specific, difficult learning goal led to higher performance than urging people to ‘do their best.’ Goal commitment was higher in the learning goal than in the outcome goal condition. The correlation between task‐relevant strategies discovered and performance was positive and significant. The number of task‐relevant strategies implemented by participants assigned a distal learning goal in conjunction with proximal goals was higher than in any other goal condition. Setting a distal outcome or learning goal that included proximal outcome goals, however, did not lead to higher performance than the setting of a distal outcome or learning goal alone. Self‐efficacy correlated significantly with performance, and this effect was mediated through strategy development. Furthermore, the discovery of task‐relevant strategies affected self‐efficacy through an increase in performance. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of facet importance as a moderator in job satisfaction processes

Two studies were designed to test hypotheses derived from Locke's (1969, 1976, 1984) model of job satisfaction. Consistent with the model, both studies found that perceived have-want discrepancy scores were powerful predictors of facet job satisfaction. In addition, facet importance tended to moderate this relationship in the manner predicted by Locke. Workers who viewed a job facet as having high importance were more satisfied with a small perceived have-want discrepancy and more dissatisfied with a large discrepancy than workers who viewed the facet as having low importance. Finally, as expected, facet importance failed to moderate the relationship between facet satisfaction and overall job satisfaction. This finding supports Locke's proposition that facet satisfaction scores are ‘implicitly weighted’ by facet importance. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Extending and testing a five factor model of ethical and unethical bargaining tactics: introducing the SINS scale

Using a questionnaire derived from previous research, MBA students in a semester‐long negotiation course rated 30 deceptive negotiation tactics on a 7‐point appropriate–inappropriate scale. Factor analysis of these ratings yielded five primary factors (replicating previous findings) representing a lay model of unethical tactics in negotiation contexts. The emergent factors are: I, traditional competitive bargaining; II, attacking an opponent's network; III, misrepresentation/lying; IV, misuse of information; and V, false promises. The five factors may be reliably measured using a 16‐item questionnaire, introduced here, called the ‘Self‐reported Inappropriate Negotiation Strategies Scale’, (or SINS scale). Analyses of scale ratings by participant demographics yielded some interesting results including: a tendency for women to be more averse to questionable tactics than men; a greater willingness for self‐rated ‘competitive’ individuals to endorse such tactics; and differences in willingness to endorse tactics according to variables such as undergraduate major, years of work experience, and nationality. Willingness to endorse less ethical tactics did not directly relate to actual negotiation performance. Directions for future research, and further uses of the SINS scale, are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Kirton Adaption - Innovation Inventory: A re-examination of the factor structure

Although the Kirton Adaption - Innovation Inventory (KAI) has almost always been used as a single scale purporting to measure a dimension of cognitive style, the KAI Manual characterizes three factors. This paper provides further confirmatory evidence of the structure of the three-factor model and of the high reliability coefficients of the three subscales. However, it questions whether three factors are sufficient and examines four- and five-factor models. Evidence is provided that the ‘O’ subscale in the orthodox three-factor model contains two conceptual elements, a major component concerned with idea generation and a minor component concerned with preference for stability/change. A four-factor model of KAI is proposed and an argument is advanced which leads to concern about the idea generation element of the ‘O’ subscale as a measure purely of cognitive style. Some implications for the development of the KAI are outlined.     

Classification of errors contributing to rail incidents and accidents: A comparison of two human error identification techniques

Identifying the errors that frequently result in the occurrence of rail incidents and accidents can lead to the development of appropriate prevention and/or mitigation strategies. Nineteen rail safety investigation reports were reviewed and two error identification tools, the Human factors analysis and classification system (HFACS) and the Technique for the retrospective and predictive analysis of cognitive errors (TRACEr-rail version), used as the means of identifying and classifying train driver errors associated with rail accidents/incidents in Australia. We aimed to identify the similarities and differences between the techniques in their capacity to identify and classify errors and also to determine how consistently the tools are applied. The HFACS analysis indicated that slips of attention (i.e. ‘skilled based errors’) were the most common ‘unsafe acts’ committed by drivers. The TRACEr-rail analysis indicated that most ‘train driving errors’ were ‘violations’ while most ‘train stopping errors’ were ‘errors of perception’. Both tools identified the underlying factors with the largest impact on driver error to be decreased alertness and incorrect driver expectations/assumptions about upcoming information. Overall, both tools proved useful in categorising driver errors from existing investigation reports, however, each tool appeared to neglect some important and different factors associated with error occurrence. Both tools were found to possess only moderate inter-rater reliability. It is thus recommended that the tools be modified, or a new tool be developed, for complete and consistent error classification.     

Perceived intra-organizational mobility: Reliable versus exceptional performance as means to getting ahead

‘Work hard and get ahead’ is a fundamental tenet of modern organizations, but employees have different interpretations of what it means to ‘work hard’ and perceive that there are multiple channels to ‘get ahead’. The current research explores employees' perceptions of the factors affecting their intra-organizational upward mobility. Results using a survey instrument in a large American medical college show that employees can distinguish among intra-organizational mobility channels based on reliable role performance, on exceptional role performance, and on non-performance factors such as personal characteristics (e.g. race and gender), or luck and favoritism. Perceptions of mobility channels are related to such organizationally relevant outcomes as employee satisfaction and turnover intentions. Occupational sub-groups, however, perceive different structures for upward mobility.     

Intraorganizational mobility and work related attitudes

Survey responses of 690 employees of a state agency were used to investigate the idea that internal mobility experiences ‘spill over’ to affect a variety of job attitudes and perceptions. Having one's internal mobility expectations met, as opposed to unmet, was associated with more favorable work-related attitudes, a finding not moderated by demographic factors. Furthermore, employees denied a job change for ‘fair’ reasons generally exhibited more favorable work-related attitudes than those denied for a reason construed as ‘unfair’ (e.g. sex discrimination, reverse discrimination). Demographic characteristics were again observed to moderate few relationships.     

Cognitive categorization processes in performance evaluation: Confirmatory tests of two models

We tested a data-driven ‘traditional’ model and a schema-driven ‘categorization’ model of rater cognitive processes. Raters viewed one of two videotaped lectures on economics. Next, they completed dimensional and overall performance ratings, and scales designed to measure performance-based and non-performance-based aspects of raters' general impressions. We tested model predictions using a combination of confirmatory factor analysis and single-equation regression estimates of structural parameters. Neither model received unequivocal support, though results favored the categorization model. We conclude that (a) performance-based and non-performance-based aspects of a rater's general impression can be distinguished empirically, (b) raters' overall impressions of ratees may substantially reflect the integration of performance-based information, and (c) performance evaluation may be better viewed in the context of ‘evaluation-based’ rather than ‘memory-based’ judgments.     

Workers’ Involvement—A Missing Component in the Implementation of Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems in Enterprises

Effective implementation of occupational safety and health (OSH) legislation based on European Union directives requires promotion of OSH management systems ( OSH MS). To this end, voluntary Polish standards (PN-N-18000) have been adopted, setting forth OSH MS specifications and guidelines. However, the number of enterprises implementing OSH MS has increased slowly, falling short of expectations, which call for a new national policy on OSH MS promotion. To develop a national policy in this area, a survey was conducted in 40 enterprises with OSH MS in place. The survey was aimed at identifying motivational factors underlying OSH MS implementation decisions. Specifically, workers’ and their representatives’ involvement in OSH MS implementation was investigated. The results showed that the level of workers ‘ involvement was relatively low, which may result in a low effectiveness of those systems. The same result also applies to the involvement of workers’ representatives and that of trade unions.     

Predictors of success in the era of the boundaryless career

The present study examines three classes of career competencies proposed as important predictors of success in the boundaryless career. Three criteria of career success were examined: perceived career satisfaction, perceived internal marketability, and perceived external marketability. Using data from 458 alumni from a large southeastern university, predictions were tested using partial correlations and dominance analysis. The results found support for the importance of ‘knowing why,’ ‘knowing whom,’ and ‘knowing how’ as suggested by previous theoretical work. The findings are discussed in reference to future research and theorizing on the boundaryless career. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Drinking to cope and self-medication: Characteristics of jobs in relation to workers' drinking behavior

This research extends recent studies of the relationship between characteristics of jobs and patterns of workers' alcohol consumption. Working within a ‘generalization perspective ’whereby job conditions are seen as having important effects on the mental health and behaviors of workers in non-work settings, the current research derives and tests a model of four job-related factors as they influence three aspects of alcohol use; the simple frequency—quantity of drinking, escapist-oriented reasons for drinking, and a combination of heavier drinking with escapist-oriented definitions which is labeled ‘self-medication’. Analyses of data drawn from the 1973 Quality of Employment Survey (QES) indicate that the relationship between jobs and drinking behavior is more complex than previously conceptualized. Specifically, we find evidence that for working men characteristics of jobs affect levels of alcohol consumption and the incidence of self-medicating drinking. These findings support and refine job-based explanations of drinking behavior. The implications of these findings for subsequent research and model-specification are discussed.     

‘Family’ in organizational research: a review and comparison of definitions and measures

Interest in the impact of family on work has grown in recent years; family is emerging as a significant source of understanding work attitudes and behaviors. However, no consensus and little discussion exists regarding how organizational researchers should define and measure ‘family’. In this article, I reviewed the definitions of family in other literatures and those implied by measures of family used in organizational research on work attitudes and behaviors. Analysis revealed five substantive themes in the measurement of family by organizational researchers: perceptions about the importance of the family role to the individual, attitudes toward family, numbers and types of dependents, the role played in the family, and the support available from family members. I then discussed the need for a comprehensive measure of dependents, and developed a new measure, Responsibility for Dependents (RFD). I examined the five types of measures empirically, and discussed empirical and conceptual differences between measures of family. Finally, I addressed issues regarding the measurement of family for organizational research, including the need for more inclusive and diverse measures and the need for further research. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The job satisfaction of older workers

Older workers re-entering the workforce and those changing jobs are coming to play an increasingly important role in the labor force, especially as part-time workers. Yet the work orientation and job satisfaction of these workers has not been studied. Do ‘situational’ factors such as skill and pay matter for this subgroup of workers, and if so, which ones? If significant factors exist, can their effect be explained by the mediating influence of ‘dispositional’ factors like work values? This paper explores these questions in a study of 198 older workers who had begun new, mostly part-time jobs. Regression analysis shows that the intrinsic indicators for skill and autonomy have a positive effect on job satisfaction. No extrinsic factor was significantly related to satisfaction, indicating that these workers are more than ‘instrumentally’ oriented. This support for a ‘situational’ interpretation of the impact of work, especially intrinsic features, was sustained in analyses which incorporated work values. To the extent that the growing number of part-time jobs are relatively low-skilled, and to the extent that older workers in new jobs are influenced most by intrinsically rewarding work, there appears to be a growing mismatch between an occupational niche and those who are being sought to fill it.     

The safety barometer: How safe is my plant today? Is instantaneously measuring safety level utopia or realizable?

During the last decade, serious accidents have continued to occur in the process industry. Apparently the scenarios of various undesired events leading to those accidents are still not sufficiently controlled. The key question is how potentially hazardous situations develop, what processes form the basis for this development, and how to control them? Safety level is not static but depends on many risk factors that change in presence and intensity over location and time. Safety level is dependent not only on technical process parameters that have immediate effects on the ‘frequency’ or probability of catastrophic consequences, but also depends on equipment integrity degradation, operational and management quality, attitudes, and cultural processes which may change over a prolonged time. The time and human interaction aspects make dynamic risk assessment complex. This paper will outline a conceptual approach using in addition to the regular process parameter signals received, also weak and slowly changing signals from various safety indicators, enabling to keep track of the risk factors. In theory this could lead to obtaining an instantaneous safety level ‘measure’ making possible forecast alarming for an imminent event to occur. Such concept could be regarded as a ‘writing’ safety barometer, or barograph. However, there are quite a number of problems to be solved which in the paper will be discussed.     

Goal setting and competition as determinants of task performance

Although research has demonstrated that difficult, specific goals produce higher performance than easy or non-specific goals, little research has examined goal setting in relation to competition. In such circumstances, at least four potential outcomes are logically possible (i.e. complete or partial performance enhancement with competition versus complete or partial performance reduction). Thus, this investigation manipulated goal level and competition in a 3 × 2 factorial design. Participants (N = 109) solved routine arithmetic problems. Results demonstrated that competition had a significant dysfunctional effect on task performance within goal setting conditions.     

Why are powered two wheeler riders still fatally injured in road junction crashes? – A causation analysis

Introduction: Powered Two Wheeler (PTW) crashes continue to be a road safety concern with a plateauing of the number of associated fatalities. Method: Forty one UK fatal or serious injury crashes involving a PTW and another vehicle at a junction were examined. Crash causation was analysed using the Driver Reliability and Error Analysis Method (DREAMv3.2). Crashes were split into two groups: Group A, where the other vehicle was travelling in the opposite direction to the PTW and commenced a right turn across the PTW’s path; and Group B where the other vehicle turned right out of a side road (or entrance) across the PTW’s path. Results: Overall, the factor that led directly to the crash (phenotype) was most commonly ‘too high speed’ or ‘too late action’ for the motorcyclist and ‘too early action’ for the other driver. Missed or late observations were contributory factors for both PTW riders and other vehicle drivers. Some differences between groups were observed with the PTW riders in Group B more likely to have ‘insufficient skills’ and the other vehicle drivers in Group A more likely to have ‘attention allocation’ as a causation factor. For both groups the crashes occurred because the other vehicle failed to give way to the PTW with causation chains that suggest ‘looked but failed to see’ is still an issue in this type of crash. The excessive speed of the PTW contributed to some crashes. Conclusions: This analysis suggests that drivers failing to give way to PTW riders at junctions is still a problem. This may relate to the ‘looked but did not see’ phenomenon. Causation differences were observed between the examined groups. Practical considerations: The DREAM methodology is an effective tool in analysing crash data from police collision investigation reports. Different countermeasures may be necessary to prevent different types of junction crashes.     

Perceptions of industrial risk and emergency management procedures in Hazmat Logistics: A qualitative mental model approach

In the industrial risk field, Hazmat Logistics research is growing as a sector of special relevance. The road transport of these substances is an activity with an elevated risk, involving drivers, logistics systems, industries, infrastructures, urban areas, etc.In the study of risk and safety of the logistics of hazardous materials there is a special relevance for new and complex elements, as human factors and mental models involved in managing critical incidents ‘‘on the road”. Moreover, the ‘‘emergency management training” of human resources in this field is often limited, and this represents another factor of vulnerability.In collaboration with SBG (one of the leading European Hazmat Logistics corporations), we developed a quali-quantitative study on cognitive representations and semantic perceptions of risk and emergency management procedures in tanker drivers. The main innovation of the study, with the direct involvement of the stakeholder and 47 drivers, is represented by the construction and use of ‘‘ad hoc” psychometrical and knowledge-elicitation, allowing a deeper analysis of workers’ mental models.The application of PCP tools of adapted RepGrid and Landfield Laddering Procedures allows to analyze some of the main qualitative structures of mental models held by drivers about Hazmat Logistics. Through the analysis of these mental models, it could become possible to set up efficient preventive actions for this type of industrial risk. We are going to discuss the consequences of these findings and methodological approaches for the industrial risk-and-safety field.     

Why is the rate of annual road fatalities increasing? A unit record analysis of New Zealand data (2010–2017)

IntroductionRecent increases in road crashes have reversed New Zealand’s formerly declining crash rates to produce annual fatal and serious injury counts that are 49% higher than the lowest rates achieved in 2013. Method: We model twenty-one factors in fatal and serious injury crashes, four years before and after 2013 using logistic regression. Three major factors are significantly different in the period after 2013, when crash rates increased: (1) alcohol as a cause, (2) learner licence holders, and (3) a regional effect for Auckland. Newly defined speed zones are a more common setting for crashes in the period of upturn but there is no coinciding elevated likelihood of ‘speed as a causal factor’. Three factors related to road safety were less common: aged under 25-years old, fatigue, and not wearing a seatbelt. Results: Results are compared to rates of prosecutions for alcohol-related driving offences over this period. It is possible that New Zealand’s successful road safety initiatives of the past have been undermined by reduced levels of enforcement and an unexpected outcome from the graduated driving licence system.