Air pollution in California: Manufacturing vs. services

Relative to manufacturing, service activities are often considered by planners and officials to generate considerably less environmental pollution. This hypothesis is tested by means of an examination of the economic linkages of both manufacturing and service activities and of the resulting direct and indirect emissions of five air pollutants per dollar of output in the California statewide air basin and in four regional basins within the state. Overall acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis depends in part on the particular pollutant and air basin considered but, most importantly, on the judgement as to what activities are to be considered as service activities.This paper is based on research sponsored by the California Air Resources Board under Agreement A7-143-30.     

A human ecological assessment of air quality management: A convergence in economic and ecological thinking?

Traditional air pollution management practices are examined using the human ecological framework adopted by Boyden and others (1981) in their study of Hong Kong—the biohistorical or biosocial approach. The subsequent analysis of current air quality management practices assesses their effectiveness in protecting the overall health of both humans and the natural environment. The uncertainties inherent in air pollution management practices which emerge highlight the need to reduce emissions rather than rely on scientific knowledge to define clean air. The assessment also clearly defines roles for research in various areas such as atmospheric models, health effects, and environmental damage. The final recommendations emphasize the need for the introduction of such incentives to reduce emissions as economic instruments and warn against using health information to define clean air. Health and environmental damage information can, however, be used in risk assessment strategies together with atmospheric dispersion models.     

Evaluating the PM damage cost due to urban air pollution and vehicle emissions in Seoul, Korea

This study evaluated the prospective damage costs of PM(2.5) inhalation. We performed a health risk assessment based on an exposure-response function to estimate the annual population risk in the Seoul metropolitan city, Korea. Also, we estimated a willingness-to-pay (WTP) amount for reducing the mortality rate in order to evaluate a statistical life value. We combined the annual population risk and the value-of-statistical-life to calculate the damage cost estimate. In the health risk assessment, we applied the PM(2.5) relative risk to evaluate the annual population risk. We targeted an exposure population of 5,401,369 persons who were over the age of 30. Using a Monte-Carlo simulation for uncertainty analysis, we estimated that the population risk of PM(2.5) inhalation during a year in Seoul is 2181 premature deaths for acute exposure and 18,510 premature deaths for chronic exposure. The monthly average WTP for 5/1000 mortality reduction over ten years is $20.20 USD (95% C.I: $16.60-24.50) and the implied value-of-statistical-life (VSL) is $485,000 USD (95% C.I: $398,000-588,000). The damage cost estimate due to risk from PM(2.5) inhalation in Seoul is about $1057 million USD per year for acute exposure, and $8972 million USD per year for chronic exposure. It is important to note that this cost estimate does not reflect all health damage cost estimates in this urban area. This recommendation is a model for evaluating a mortality risk reduction and as such we must re-evaluate an integrated application of morbidity risk.     

Economic assessment of the health effects related to particulate matter pollution in 111 Chinese cities by using economic burden of disease analysis

With China's rapid economic development, environmental problems have become more and more serious. Particulate air pollution is terrible in cities with large and dense population. It may lead to adverse health effects and economic costs. In this study, we calculated the health effects of pollution caused by particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters less than 10mum (PM(10)) in 111 Chinese cities in 2004 according to statistical data and epidemiological exposure-response functions. Using economic burden of disease analysis, an economic assessment of these health risks was also presented. In contrast to many previous studies that have examined individual cities, this study covered most large and medium-sized cities in China, which accounted for more than 70% gross domestic product (GDP) of China in 2004. The total economic cost caused by PM(10) pollution was estimated as approximately US$ 29,178.7 million. Mega cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin contribute relatively more to the total costs. The results will help policy makers in formulating more effective countermeasures and increasing public awareness to enhance environmental protection.     

Particulates pollution management and economic analysis of small rural enterprises in mountain areas: A case study of Wenquan town in China

At present, many rural enterprises in China's mountainous areas are developing rapidly, and due to poor planning and improper management, in an uncontrolled manner. These small enterprises are making atmospheric pollution far more serious and more difficult to control than before. Thus, as is the case with most developing countries, China is facing the challenge of managing the increased environmental pollution that is accompanying its economic development. This paper examines the case of cement dust pollution in the town of Wenquan in Sichuan province in order to determine how to adjust the relationship between development of rural enterprises and atmospheric environmental pollution in mountainous areas. Using the single objective linear programming method, and based on the principle of overall optimization, an optimal control plan for different pollution sources was worked out and an economic assessment on reclamation of cement dust was completed. According to our analysis, after implementation of this plan for four years, two months, the concentrations of suspended particles in Wenquan will achieve the requirement of the national third-order ambient air quality standard; the current serious dust pollution will be completely controlled; and the reclamation of cement dust will totally compensate for the cost of dust control and will result in 92,000 yuan of pure profit per year. At that time, the economy and environment will be in harmony.     

美加跨境大气污染防控合作体制机制对粤港澳大湾区的启示

加强区域大气污染联防联控、加快改善空气质量、早日对标世界先进水平是粤港澳大湾区生态环境建设的重要任务。本文总结了美国和加拿大的跨境大气污染防控合作体制机制建设方面的经验，基于粤港澳大湾区"一国两制三法域"特征下的区域大气污染协同防控需求和不足，从建立区域性权威管理机构和技术支撑机构，联合开展跨界科研、中长期政策制定和实施情况跟踪评估等方面提出深化粤港澳大湾区区域大气污染防控合作体制机制建设，进一步推进区域大气污染协同改善的策略建议，为粤港澳大湾区的大气污染防治提供借鉴。     

Reducing Nonpoint Source Pollution Through Collaboration: Policies and Programs Across the U.S. States

Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution has emerged as the largest threat to water quality in the United States, influencing policy makers and resource managers to direct more attention toward NPS prevention and remediation. In response, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) spent more than $204 million in fiscal year (FY) 2006 on the Clean Water Act’s Section 319 program to combat NPS pollution, much of it on the development and implementation of watershed-based plans. State governments have also increasingly allocated financial and technical resources to collaborative watershed efforts within their own borders to fight NPS pollution. With increased collaboration among the federal government, states, and citizens to combat NPS pollution, more information is needed to understand how public resources are being used, by whom, and for what, and what policy changes might improve effectiveness. Analysis from a 50-state study suggests that, in addition to the average 35% of all Section 319 funds per state that are passed on to collaborative watershed groups, 35 states have provided financial assistance beyond Section 319 funding to support collaborative watershed initiatives. State programs frequently provide technical assistance and training, in addition to financial resources, to encourage collaborative partnerships. Such assistance is typically granted in exchange for requirements to generate a watershed action plan and/or follow a mutually agreed upon work plan to address NPS pollution. Program managers indicated a need for greater fiscal resources and flexibility to achieve water quality goals.     

Environmental Equity and the Role of Public Policy: Experiences in the Rijnmond Region

This Φ Ψ study of environmental equity uses secondary quantitative data to analyze socioeconomic disparities in environmental conditions in the Rijnmond region of the Netherlands. The disparities of selected environmental indicators—exposure to traffic noise (road, rail, and air), NO₂, external safety risks, and the availability of public green space—are analyzed both separately and in combination. Not only exposures to environmental burdens (“bads”) were investigated, but also access to environmental benefits (“goods”). Additionally, we held interviews and reviewed documents to grasp the mechanisms underlying the environmental equity situation, with an emphasis on the role of public policy. Environmental equity is not a priority in public policy for the greater Rotterdam region known as the Rijnmond region, yet environmental standards have been established to provide a minimum environmental quality to all local residents. In general, environmental quality has improved in this region, and the accumulation of negative environmental outcomes (“bads”) has been limited. However, environmental standards for road traffic noise and NO₂ are being exceeded, probably because of the pressure on space and the traffic intensity. We found an association of environmental “bads” with income for rail traffic noise and availability of public green space. In the absence of regulation, positive environmental outcomes (“goods”) are mainly left up to market forces. Consequently, higher-income groups generally have more access to environmental “goods” than lower-income groups.     

Nitrate Concentrations in Springs Flowing into the Lower Flint River Basin,Georgia U.S.A.1

Allums, Stephanie E., Stephen P. Opsahl, Stephen W. Golladay, David W. Hicks, and L. Mike Conner, 2012. Nitrate Concentrations in Springs Flowing Into the Lower Flint River Basin, Georgia U.S.A. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 48(3): 423-438. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2011.00624.x Abstract: Analysis of long-term data from (2001-2009) in four springs that discharge from the Upper Floridan aquifer into the Flint River (southwestern Georgia, United States) indicate aquifer and surface-water susceptibility to nutrient loading. Nitrate-N concentrations ranged from 1.74 to 3.30 mg/l, and exceeded historical levels reported for the Upper Floridan aquifer (0.26-1.52 mg/l). Statistical analyses suggest increasing nitrate-N concentration in groundwater discharging at the springs (n = 146 over eight years) and that nitrate-N concentration is influenced by a dynamic interaction between depth to groundwater (an indicator of regional hydrologic conditions) and land use. A one-time synoptic survey of 10 springs (6 springs in addition to the 4 previously mentioned) using stable isotopes generated δ¹⁵N-NO₃⁻ values (4.8-8.4‰ for rural springs and 7.7-13.4‰ for developed/urban springs) suggesting mixed sources (i.e., fertilizer, animal waste, and soil organic nitrogen) of nitrate-N to rural springs and predominantly animal/human waste to urban springs. These analyses indicate a direct relation between nitrate-N loading since the 1940s and intensification of agricultural and urban land use. This study demonstrates the importance of evaluating long-term impacts of land use on water quality in groundwater springs and in determining how rapidly these changes occur.     

Serving the Common Interest in U.S. Forest Policy: A Case Study of the Healthy Forests Restoration Act

In the United States, the common interest often is conceived as a by-product of the pluralist, interest-group-driven democratic process. Special interests dominate in many political arenas. Consequently, we have lost the language, vocabulary, and ability to talk about the common interest. The way to reverse this trend is to develop and practice with new tools that allow us to articulate what we mean by the common interest in specific contexts. In this article, we leveraged the literature on procedural, substantive, and pragmatic decision making to illustrate how they work together to demonstrate whether and how the common interest was served in three case studies of Healthy Forests Restoration Act implementation on the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest in Arizona. In two of the cases we found that the common interest was mostly served, while in the third case it was not. Our results raise questions about the ability of procedural criteria or substantive criteria alone to determine effectiveness in decision making. When evaluated together they provide a more complete understanding of how the common interest is or is not served.

Policy, Principle, and Practice in Industrial Pollution Control: Views from the Regulatory Interface

There has been much criticism of the system for the control of industrial pollution, but not much is known about the views of the regulators and the industry. The objective of this study was to explore the attitudes at this regulatory interface towards the current and proposed regulatory system and make recommendations for improvements. The methodology involved a questionnaire survey sent to over 700 key personnel. Statistical analysis revealed similarities and significant differences between the views of industry and the regulator on the effectiveness of the current regime. Weaknesses related to the derivation and enforcement of standards were identified. The Environmental Quality Standards system was acknowledged to be flawed by both operators and regulators who agreed it should be improved by the expansion of listed chemicals, the introduction of sediment environmental quality standards and direct toxicity assessment of effluents. This paper concludes that these measures should be incorporated into the regulatory system, together with more rigorous enforcement of environmental performance standards including serious sanctions for non-compliance. In the longer term, a reappraisal of the regulatory system is required in order to establish an appropriate framework to ensure that environmental policy commitments are implemented.     

Industrial pollution,spatial stigma and economic decline: the case of Asopos river basin through the lens of local small business owners

This paper explores the notion of environmentally induced spatial stigma through an analysis of data from interviews across public attitudes to pollution within the Asopos river basin in central Greece. The area has a 40 year plus history of legal and illicit industrial waste disposal and public debate on the associated environmental degradation. The study focuses on the perceptions and beliefs of a sector of the community likely to be directly and negatively affected by stigma, that is small business owners in the tourism and hospitality sector. The qualitative analysis explores awareness and viewpoints on environmental degradation and water quality within the local context, implications for the local economy and the individual's own enterprise, views on industrial environmental management as well as corporate responsibility and future prospects for the environmental problems of Asopos. Findings reveal a noticeable variation in views on industrial pollution and ecosystem deterioration among the respondents, but overall a strong environmentally induced stigmatization of the area. They also uncover an information asymmetry and lack of credible commitment by government bodies and industry members in disclosing accurate information, a situation likely to increase speculation and uncertainty within the community. The paper concludes by addressing implications of the findings to policy-making and managerial considerations, along with future research perspectives which aim to increase considerations of sustainability aspects for local development.     

SPARROW Modeling of Nitrogen Sources and Transport in Rivers and Streams of California and Adjacent States,U.S.

The SPARROW (SPAtially Referenced Regressions On Watershed attributes) model was used to evaluate the spatial distribution of total nitrogen (TN) sources, loads, watershed yields, and factors affecting transport and decay in the stream network of California and portions of adjacent states for the year 2002. The two major TN sources to local catchments on a mass basis were fertilizers and manure (51.7%) and wastewater discharge (15.9%). Other sources contributed < 12%. Fertilizer use is widespread in the Central Valley region of California, and also important in several other regions because of the diversity of California agriculture. Precipitation, sand content of surficial soils, wetlands, and tile drains were important for TN movement to stream reaches. Median streamflow in the study area is about 0.04 m³/s. Aquatic losses of nitrogen were found to be most important in intermittent and small to medium sized streams (0.2‐14 m³/s), while larger streams showed less loss, and therefore are important for TN transport. Nitrogen loss in reservoirs was found to be insignificant, possibly because most of the larger ones are located upstream of nitrogen sources. The model was used to show loadings, sources, and tributary inputs to several major rivers. The information provided by the SPARROW model is useful for determining both the major sources contributing nitrogen to streams and the specific tributaries that transport the load.     

Distribution of Selected Soil and Water Conservation Practices in the U.S. as Identified with Google Earth

The proper representation of conservation practices on agricultural lands is an important factor in large‐scale assessments of water quality in the United States. Unfortunately, there are few publicly available data sources at the local level and even fewer at the national scale. In this research, randomly selected points within agricultural lands were examined for selected conservation practices using Google Earth aerial imagery by a team of interpreters. In total, 13,530 points had field boundaries digitized, and were subsequently examined and classified. The presence of terraces, grassed waterways, contour farming, center pivot irrigation, strip cropping, ponds, riparian vegetation, filter strips, and land cover were noted. Subjectivity among interpreters was evaluated using duplicate samples and was found to be similar to image misclassification rates in other research. Conservation practice adoption rates for selected major river basins compared favorably with data collected by the Conservation Effects Assessment Project. The frequency of occurrence of each conservation practice was summarized and presented by ecoregion. To facilitate future research, point level data and software source code developed in this research are available via the web at http://nlet.brc.tamus.edu/Conservation . Aerial imagery was found to be a powerful, inexpensive, and easily accessible tool to assess large‐scale conservation practice implementation for certain conservation practices.     

Priority screening of toxic chemicals and industry sectors in the U.S. toxics release inventory: a comparison of the life cycle impact-based and risk-based assessment tools developed by U.S. EPA

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) and Risk Assessment (RA) employ different approaches to evaluate toxic impact potential for their own general applications. LCIA is often used to evaluate toxicity potentials for corporate environmental management and RA is often used to evaluate a risk score for environmental policy in government. This study evaluates the cancer, non-cancer, and ecotoxicity potentials and risk scores of chemicals and industry sectors in the United States on the basis of the LCIA- and RA-based tools developed by U.S. EPA, and compares the priority screening of toxic chemicals and industry sectors identified with each method to examine whether the LCIA- and RA-based results lead to the same prioritization schemes. The Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and other environmental Impacts (TRACI) is applied as an LCIA-based screening approach with a focus on air and water emissions, and the Risk-Screening Environmental Indicator (RSEI) is applied in equivalent fashion as an RA-based screening approach. The U.S. Toxic Release Inventory is used as the dataset for this analysis, because of its general applicability to a comprehensive list of chemical substances and industry sectors. Overall, the TRACI and RSEI results do not agree with each other in part due to the unavailability of characterization factors and toxic scores for select substances, but primarily because of their different evaluation approaches. Therefore, TRACI and RSEI should be used together both to support a more comprehensive and robust approach to screening of chemicals for environmental management and policy and to highlight substances that are found to be of concern from both perspectives.     

Regional Blue and Green Water Balances and Use by Selected Crops in the U.S.

The availability of freshwater is a prerequisite for municipal development and agricultural production, especially in the arid and semiarid portions of the western United States (U.S.). Agriculture is the leading user of water in the U.S. Agricultural water use can be partitioned into green (derived from rainfall) and blue water (irrigation). Blue water can be further subdivided by source. In this research, we develop a hydrologic balance by 8‐Digit Hydrologic Unit Code using a combination of Soil and Water Assessment Tool simulations and available human water use estimates. These data are used to partition agricultural groundwater usage by sustainability and surface water usage by local source or importation. These predictions coupled with reported agricultural yield data are used to predict the virtual water contained in each ton of corn, wheat, sorghum, and soybeans produced and its source. We estimate that these four crops consume 480 km³ of green water annually and 23 km³ of blue water, 12 km³ of which is from groundwater withdrawal. Regional trends in blue water use from groundwater depletion highlight heavy usage in the High Plains, and small pockets throughout the western U.S. This information is presented to inform water resources debate by estimating the cost of agricultural production in terms of water regionally. This research illustrates the variable water content of the crops we consume and export, and the source of that water.     

Land use planning,pollution control and environmental assessment in the E.C. environment policy

The Environmental Council of the European Communities is giving consideration to a procedure to provide a common basis for the assessment and control of potentially polluting development. This discusses the rationale and theory underlying the use of land use planning procedures to control potentially polluting development, and the need for harmonisation of procedures within the European Communities in order to avoid the emergence of pollution havens. It goes on to discuss the proposed Directive on environmental assessment, and the implications of its adoption and incorporation into the planning procedures of the U.K. and other member states.     

Assessing the Hydrologic and Water Quality Benefits of a Network of Stormwater Control Measures in a SE U.S. Piedmont Watershed

The hydrologic and water quality benefits of an existing engineered stormwater control measures (SCMs) network, along with the alternative stormwater control simulations, were assessed in the rapidly urbanizing Beaverdam Creek watershed located in SE U.S. Piedmont region through the use of distributed Model of Urban Stormwater Improvement Conceptualization stormwater model. When compared with predevelopment conditions, the postdevelopment watershed simulation without SCMs indicated a 2 times increase in total runoff volume, 3 times average increase in peak flow for 1.5‐3.2 cm 6‐h storm events, and 30 times, 12 times, and 3 times higher total suspended solids (TSS), total phosphorous (TP), and total nitrogen (TN) loadings, respectively. The existing SCMs network, in comparison with the postdeveloped watershed without SCMs, reduced the average peak flow rates for 1.5‐3.2 cm 6‐h storm events by 70%, lowered the annual runoff volume by 3%, and lowered TSS, TP, TN annual loads by 57, 51, and 10%, respectively. A backyard rain garden simulation resulted in minimal additional reduction in TSS (1.6%), TP (0.4%), and TN (4%). Model simulations indicate that mandatory 85% TSS and 70% TP annual load reductions in comparison with the predevelopment levels would require the diversion of runoff from at least 70% of the contributing drainage areas runoff into additional offline bioretention basins.     

Rice and Bricks: Environmental Issues and Mapping of the Unusual Crop Rotation Pattern in the Kathmandu Valley,Nepal

The Kathmandu Valley in Nepal has experienced a very rapid increase in population resulting in considerable land use/land cover change and also a series of environmental problems. One of the results of the population increase is an expansion of brick manufacturing within the Valley because most structures are brick. The brick kilns are intense in several locations of the Valley and have an interesting pattern of using the same lands for bricks during the dry season and then conversion to rice during the wet, summer monsoon months. The increase in brick production has contributed to environmental problems including decreased soil productivity, lowered ground water levels, and particularly air pollution. Brick manufacturing has little, if any, effective regulation. There is a lack of current, accurate data on brick production that could be resolved by remote sensing methods. Controls should be established and more information acquired on the location and impacts of brick production.