Estimating the resuspension rate and residence time of indoor particles

Resuspension experiments were performed in a single-family residence. Resuspension by human activity was found to elevate the mass concentration of indoor particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 microm (PM10) an average of 2.5 times as high as the background level. As summarized from 14 experiments, the average estimated PM10 resuspension rate by a person walking on a carpeted floor was (1.4 +/- 0.6) x 10(-4) hr(-1). The estimated residence time for PM in the indoor air following resuspension was less than 2 hr for PM10 and less than 3 hr for 2-microm tracer particles. However, experimental results show that the 2-microm tracer particles stayed in the combined indoor air and surface compartments much longer (>19 days). Using a two-compartment model to simulate a regular deposition and resuspension cycle by normal human activity (e.g., walking and sitting on furniture), we estimated residence time for 2-microm conservative particulate pollutants to be more than 7 decades without vacuum cleaning, and months if vacuum cleaning was done once per week. This finding supports the observed long residence time of persistent organic pollutants in indoor environments. This study introduces a method to evaluate the particle resuspension rate from semicontinuous concentration data of particulate matter (PM). It reveals that resuspension and subsequent exfiltration does not strongly affect the overall residence time of PM pollutants when compared with surface cleaning. However, resuspension substantially increases PM concentration, and thus increases short-term inhalation exposure to indoor PM pollutants.     

The relationship between indoor and outdoor airborne particles in the residential environment

The relationship between indoor and outdoor airborne particles was investigated for 16 residential houses located in a suburban area of Brisbane, Australia. The submicrometer particle numbers were measured using the Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer, the larger particle numbers using the Aerodynamic Particle Sizer and an approximation of PM_2.5 was also measured using a DustTrak. The measurements were conducted for normal and minimum ventilation conditions using simultaneous and non-simultaneous measurement methods designed for the purpose of the study. Comparison of the ratios of indoor to outdoor particle concentrations revealed that while temporary values of the ratio vary in a broad range from 0.2 to 2.5 for both lower and higher ventilation conditions, average values of the ratios were very close to one regardless of ventilation conditions and of particle size range. The ratios were in the range from 0.78 to 1.07 for submicrometer particles, from 0.95 to 1.0 for supermicrometer particles and from 1.01 to 1.08 for PM_2.5 fraction. Comparison of the time series of indoor to outdoor particle concentrations shows a clear positive relationship existing for many houses under normal ventilation conditions (estimated to be about and above 2 h⁻¹), but not under minimum ventilation conditions (estimated to be about and below 1 h⁻¹). These results suggest that for normal ventilation conditions, outdoor particle concentrations could be used to predict instantaneous indoor particle concentrations but not for minimum ventilation, unless air exchange rate is known, thus allowing for estimation of the “delay constant”.     

Determinants of indoor and personal exposure to PM2.5 of indoor and outdoor origin during the RIOPA study

Effects of physical/environmental factors on fine particle (PM_2.5) exposure, outdoor-to-indoor transport and air exchange rate (AER) were examined. The fraction of ambient PM_2.5 found indoors (F_INF) and the fraction to which people are exposed (α) modify personal exposure to ambient PM_2.5. Because F_INF, α, and AER are infrequently measured, some have used air conditioning (AC) as a modifier of ambient PM_2.5 exposure. We found no single variable that was a good predictor of AER. About 50% and 40% of the variation in F_INF and α, respectively, was explained by AER and other activity variables. AER alone explained 36% and 24% of the variations in F_INF and α, respectively. Each other predictor, including Central AC Operation, accounted for less than 4% of the variation. This highlights the importance of AER measurements to predict F_INF and α. Evidence presented suggests that outdoor temperature and home ventilation features affect particle losses as well as AER, and the effects differ.Total personal exposures to PM_2.5 mass/species were reconstructed using personal activity and microenvironmental methods, and compared to direct personal measurement. Outdoor concentration was the dominant predictor of (partial R² = 30–70%) and the largest contributor to (20–90%) indoor and personal exposures for PM_2.5 mass and most species. Several activities had a dramatic impact on personal PM_2.5 mass/species exposures for the few study participants exposed to or engaged in them, including smoking and woodworking. Incorporating personal activities (in addition to outdoor PM_2.5) improved the predictive power of the personal activity model for PM_2.5 mass/species; more detailed information about personal activities and indoor sources is needed for further improvement (especially for Ca, K, OC). Adequate accounting for particle penetration and persistence indoors and for exposure to non-ambient sources could potentially increase the power of epidemiological analyses linking health effects to particulate exposures.     

A review of the impact of outdoor and indoor environmental factors on human health in China

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that global climate change has led to the increased occurrence of extreme weather...     

Experimental investigation of outdoor and indoor mean concentrations and concentration fluctuations of pollutants

Tracer gas was released upwind of a two-compartment complex shaped building under unstable atmospheric conditions. The mean wind direction was normal to or at 45° to the long face of the building. The general patterns of concentration distribution on the building external walls and inside the building were analysed and the influence of natural and mechanical ventilation on indoor concentration distributions was discussed. Mean concentration levels, as well as the concentration fluctuation intensity, were higher on the windward walls of the building, although concentration levels varied along each wall. Concentration fluctuations measured inside the building were lower than those measured outside. Inside the two compartments of the building, the time series of concentrations had a similar general behaviour; however, gas concentrations took approximately 1.5 times longer to reach the mean maximum concentration value at the downwind compartment 02 while they also decreased more rapidly in the upwind compartment 01 after the source was turned off. The highest indoor concentration and concentration fluctuation values were observed at the detectors located close to the windward walls, especially when the building windows were open. Experiments with and without natural ventilation suggested that infiltration and exfiltration of contaminants is much faster when the building windows are open, resulting to higher indoor concentration levels. Furthermore, mechanical ventilation tends to homogenize concentrations and suppress concentration fluctuations, leading to lower maximum concentration values.     

Culturability and concentration of indoor and outdoor airborne fungi in six single-family homes

In this study, the culturability of indoor and outdoor airborne fungi was determined through long-term sampling (24-h) using a Button Personal Inhalable Aerosol Sampler. The air samples were collected during three seasons in six Cincinnati area homes that were free from moisture damage or visible mold. Cultivation and total microscopic enumeration methods were employed for the sample analysis. The geometric means of indoor and outdoor culturable fungal concentrations were 88 and 102 colony-forming units (CFU) m(-3), respectively, with a geometric mean of the I/O ratio equal to 0.66. Overall, 26 genera of culturable fungi were recovered from the indoor and outdoor samples. For total fungal spores, the indoor and outdoor geometric means were 211 and 605 spores m(-3), respectively, with a geometric mean of I/O ratio equal to 0.32. The identification revealed 37 fungal genera from indoor and outdoor samples based on the total spore analysis. Indoor and outdoor concentrations of culturable and total fungal spores showed significant correlations (r = 0.655, p<0.0001 and r = 0.633, p<0.0001, respectively). The indoor and outdoor median viabilities of fungi were 55% and 25%, respectively, which indicates that indoor environment provides more favorable survival conditions for the aerosolized fungi. Among the seasons, the highest indoor and outdoor culturability of fungi was observed in the fall. Cladosporium had a highest median value of culturability (38% and 33% for indoor and outdoor, respectively) followed by Aspergillus/Penicillium (9% and 2%) among predominant genera of fungi. Increased culturability of fungi inside the homes may have important implications because of the potential increase in the release of allergens from viable spores and pathogenicity of viable fungi on immunocompromised individuals.     

长春供暖季室内外PM2.5浓度垂直分布与分析

为研究严寒地区供暖季室内外PM_(2.5)浓度的垂直分布,在供暖季分别对长春某高层居住建筑1、8、15、24、33楼层的室内外PM_(2.5)浓度进行监测,研究不同楼层室内外PM_(2.5)的浓度与变化特征。采用随机组分重叠模型(RCS)方法研究各楼层PM_(2.5)渗透因子,采用逐步回归分析方法研究室内PM_(2.5)浓度的各影响因素。结果表明:在供暖季,长春市高层建筑的不同楼层均存在一定的PM_(2.5)污染,室内外PM_(2.5)浓度随楼层升高大体呈现减小的趋势,但差异不显著。室内外PM_(2.5)浓度存在显著的相关性(P 0.05),在没有室内污染源时,室外颗粒物渗透是室内污染的主要来源。室内PM_(2.5)浓度与房间面积等没有显著相关性。     

广州市夏、冬季室内外PM2.5质量浓度的特征

2004年7月2日至8月13日和2004年11月29日至2005年1月6日分别在广州市3种类型区域(一般城市区域、道路旁、工业源附近)9个居民住宅的室内和室外同步采集了PM2.5颗粒.采用标准称重法测定PM2.5质量浓度,得到广州市夏季住宅室内外PM2.5平均质量浓度分别为67.7、74.5 μg/m3,冬季室内外PM2.5平均质量浓度分别为109.9、123.7 μg/m3.广州市PM2.5平均质量浓度,与美国PM2.5标准相比,与国内PM10标准基础上假设的PM2.5限值相比,与其他一些国内、亚洲和欧美城市的文献记录相比,结果均显示广州市PM2.5处于相当严重污染状态.广州市PM2.5质量浓度呈现明显的空间分布特征和季节变化特征;PM2.5室内质量浓度并不总是低于室外质量浓度,反映了室内空气污染的存在.     

The transformation of outdoor ammonium nitrate aerosols in the indoor environment

Recent studies associate particulate air pollution with adverse health effects; however, the exposure to indoor particles of outdoor origin is not well characterized, particularly for individual chemical species. We conducted a field study in an unoccupied, single-story residence in Clovis, California to provide data and analyses to address issues important for assessing exposure. We used real-time particle monitors both outdoors and indoors to quantify nitrate, sulfate, and carbon particulate matter of particle size 2.5 μm or less in diameter (PM-2.5). The results show that measured indoor ammonium nitrate concentrations were significantly lower than would be expected based solely on penetration and deposition losses. The additional reduction can be attributed to the transformation indoors of ammonium nitrate into ammonia and nitric acid gases, which are subsequently lost by deposition and sorption to indoor surfaces. A mass balance model that accounts for the kinetics of ammonium nitrate evaporation was able to reproduce measured indoor ammonium nitrate and nitric acid concentrations, resulting in a fitted value of the deposition velocity for nitric acid of 0.56 cm s⁻¹. The results indicate that indoor exposure to outdoor ammonium nitrate in Central Valley of California are small, and suggest that exposure assessments based on total particle mass measured outdoors may obscure the actual causal relationships for indoor exposure to particles of outdoor origin.     

An evaluation of indoor and outdoor biological particulate matter

The incidences of allergies, allergic diseases and asthma are increasing world wide. Global climate change is likely to impact plants and animals, as well as microorganisms. The World Health Organization, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change cite increased allergic reactions due to climate change as a growing concern. Monitoring of indoor and ambient particulate matter (PM) and the characterization of the content for biological aerosol concentrations has not been extensively performed. Samples from urban and rural North Carolina (NC), and Denver (CO), were collected and analyzed as the goal of this research. A study of PM₁₀ (<10 μm in aerodynamic diameter) and PM_2.5 (<2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter) fractions of ambient bioaerosols was undertaken for a six month period to evaluate the potential for long-term concentrations. These airborne bioaerosols can induce irritational, allergic, infectious, and chemical responses in exposed individuals. Three separate sites were monitored, samples were collected and analyzed for mass and biological content (endotoxins, (1,3)-β-d-glucan and protein). Concentrations of these bioaerosols were reported as a function of PM size fraction, mass and volume of air sampled. The results indicated that higher concentrations of biologicals were present in PM₁₀ than were present in PM_2.5, except when near-roadway conditions existed. This study provides the characterization of ambient bioaerosol concentrations in a variety of areas and conditions.     

Comparative study on indoor air quality in Japan and China: Characteristics of residential indoor and outdoor VOCs

We conducted a comparative study on the indoor air quality for Japan and China to investigate aromatic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in indoor microenvironments (living room, bedroom, and kitchen) and outdoors in summer and winter during 2006–2007. Samples were taken from Shizuoka in Japan and Hangzhou in China, which are urban cities with similar latitudes. Throughout the samplings, the indoor and outdoor concentrations of many of the targeted VOCs (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes, and trimethylbenzenes) in China were significantly higher than those in Japan. The indoor concentrations of VOCs in Japan were somewhat consistent with those outdoors, whereas those in China tended to be higher than those outdoors. Here, we investigated the differences in VOC concentrations between Japan and China. Compositional analysis of indoor and outdoor VOCs showed bilateral differences; the contribution of benzene in China was remarkably higher than that in Japan. Significant correlations (p < 0.05) for benzene were observed among the concentrations in indoor microenvironments and between the outdoors and living rooms or kitchens in Japan. In China, however, significant correlations were observed only between living rooms and bedrooms. These findings suggest differences in strengths of indoor VOC emissions between Japan and China. The source characterizations were also investigated using principal component analysis/absolute principal component scores. It was found that outdoor sources including vehicle emission and industrial sources, and human activity could be significant sources of indoor VOC pollution in Japan and China respectively. In addition, the lifetime cancer risks estimated from unit risks and geometric mean indoor concentrations of carcinogenic VOCs were 2.3 × 10^?5 in Japan and 21 × 10^?5 in China, indicating that the exposure risks in China were approximately 10 times higher than those in Japan.     

Real-time measurement of outdoor tobacco smoke particles

The current lack of empirical data on outdoor tobacco smoke (OTS) levels impedes OTS exposure and risk assessments. We sought to measure peak and time-averaged OTS concentrations in common outdoor settings near smokers and to explore the determinants of time-varying OTS levels, including the effects of source proximity and wind. Using five types of real-time airborne particle monitoring devices, we obtained more than 8000 min worth of continuous monitoring data, during which there were measurable OTS levels. Measurement intervals ranged from 2 sec to 1 min for the different instruments. We monitored OTS levels during 15 on-site visits to 10 outdoor public places where active cigar and cigarette smokers were present, including parks, sidewalk cafés, and restaurant and pub patios. For three of the visits and during 4 additional days of monitoring outdoors and indoors at a private residence, we controlled smoking activity at precise distances from monitored positions. The overall average OTS respirable particle concentration for the surveys of public places during smoking was approximately 30 microg m(-3). OTS exhibited sharp spikes in particle mass concentration during smoking that sometimes exceeded 1000 microg m(-3) at distances within 0.5 m of the source. Some average concentrations over the duration of a cigarette and within 0.5 m exceeded 200 microg m(-3), with some average downwind levels exceeding 500 microg m(-3). OTS levels in a constant upwind direction from an active cigarette source were nearly zero. OTS levels also approached zero at distances greater than approximately 2 m from a single cigarette. During periods of active smoking, peak and average OTS levels near smokers rivaled indoor tobacco smoke concentrations. However, OTS levels dropped almost instantly after smoking activity ceased. Based on our results, it is possible for OTS to present a nuisance or hazard under certain conditions of wind and smoker proximity.     

Indoor/outdoor concentrations and indoor surface accumulations of ionic substances

The airborne concentrations of soluble ions in fine particles and coarse particles have been measured indoors and outdoors at telephone offices in Wichita, Kansas and Lubbock, Texas, These concentrations are compared with the mean annual indoor surface accumulations of these ions on zinc and aluminum structural surfaces. On average, the major soluble ions contained in fine airborne particles are ammonium, sulfate, and nitrate, while those contained in coarse particles are calcium and nitrate. In the fine mode, potassium and chloride have indoor/outdoor ratios that are larger than those observed for the other ionic species, indicating the existence of a significant indoor source. In the coarse mode, similar comparisons show that sodium, chloride, and sometimes sulfate have significant indoor sources. For chloride, a simple model has been used for apportioning surface accumulation at each location due to corrosive chlorine gases, coarse particles, and fine particles. For other ions where corrosive gases are not important, the accumulation has been apportioned between coarse and fine particles. From these data, experimental deposition velocities for fine mode sulfate ions and coarse mode calcium ions were calculated to be 0.003 and l.0 cms⁻¹, respectively, at Wichita, while those at Lubbock were 0.005 and 0.2 cms⁻.     

Calibration of sharp cut impactors for indoor and outdoor particle sampling

A low-flow rate, sharp cut point inertial impaction sampler was developed in 1986 that has been widely used in PM exposure studies in the United States and several other countries. Although sold commercially as the MS&T Area Sampler, this sampler is widely referred to as the Harvard Impactor, since the initial use was at the Harvard School of Public Health. Impactor nozzles for this sampler have been designed and characterized for flows of 4, 10, 20, and 23 L/min and cut points of 1, 2, 5, and 10 microns. An improved method for determining the actual collecting efficiency curve was developed and used for the recent impactor calibrations reported here. It consists of placing a multiplet reduction impactor inline just downstream of the vibrating orifice aerosol generator to remove the multiplets, thus allowing only the singlet particle s to penetrate through to the impactor being calibrated This paper documents the techniques and results of recent nozzle calibrations for this sampler and compares it with other size-selective inertial impactors. In general, the impactors were found to have sharp cutoff characteristics. Particle interstage losses for all of the impactors were very low, with the exception of the 10-micron cut size 20 L/min impactor, which had greater losses due to the higher flow rate. All of the 2.5-micron cut nozzle laboratory calibrations compare favorably to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) WINS-96 fine particle mass (PM2.5) impactor calibration data.     

Determination of the levels of aromatic amines in indoor and outdoor air in Italy

We studied the concentration of 10 primary aromatic amines (AA), which are classified as suspected carcinogens, in indoor and outdoor air in Italy. The measured AA included: aniline, o-toluidine, m-toluidine, p-toluidine, 2,3-dimethylaniline, 2,4-dimethylaniline, 2,5-dimethylaniline, 2,6-dimethylaniline, 2-naphtylamine and 4-aminobiphenyl. In the indoor environment (homes, offices and public buildings) the level of contamination (expressed as sum of 9 AA, excluding aniline) varied from 3 ng/m3 (hospital ward) to 207 ng/m3 (discotheque). In most indoor environments with no contamination from cigarette smoke the AA levels were below 20 ng/m3, whereas in the presence of smokers higher values were observed. Aniline levels were more erratic (varying from 53 ng/m3 (office of non-smokers) to 1929 ng/m3 (discotheque) and were not related to cigarette smoke. The concentration range of AA (excluding aniline) in the outside air varied from 3 ng/m3 (Siena) to 104 ng/m3 (Brindisi); aniline concentration was extremely variable. Most samples of outdoor air had AA levels lower than 40 ng/m3. In conclusion, AA are widespread air contaminants and attain a high concentration in heavily contaminated indoor environments, due to smoking and poor ventilation. AA occasionally attain a high level in outdoor air as well. Therefore, a strategy of reduction of the exposure to AA should consider the abatement of multiple sources of contamination.     

Equilibrium temperatures of aerosol particles in outdoor exposure chambers

It has been suggested that radiational heating of atmospheric soot particles could affect the stability of organic compounds on the aerosols as these systems age in the atmosphere. To investigate this possibility, we introduce a simple equation for calculating the equilibrium temperature of atmospheric particles. The results show that under typical conditions, the temperature difference between the particles and the surrounding air is less than 0.01 K.     

室内PM2.5浓度控制模拟分析

利用质量平衡方程建立了一次回风定风量系统室内PM2.5浓度模型,并对新风PM2.5浓度、新风量、室内污染源、过滤器效率、过滤器安装位置等因素对室内PM2.5浓度的影响进行了模拟分析。模拟结果表明：新风PM2.5浓度和室内污染源强度的变化对室内PM2.5浓度均有较大影响;新风量越大,室内PM2.5浓度受新风PM2.5浓度变化的影响越大;将过滤器分别安装在送风段、新风段和回风段,新风比为0.1时,过滤器安装在送风段效果最好,安装在新风段最差,新风比为0.8时,过滤器安装在送风段效果最好,安装在回风段最差;过滤器安装在送风段时,过滤器效率越高,室内PM2.5浓度越低,波动越小。     

Particulate matter in the indoor and outdoor air of a gymnasium and a fronton

An indoor/outdoor monitoring programme of PM₁₀ was carried out in two sports venues (a fronton and a gymnasium). Levels always below 50 μg m^?3 were obtained in the fronton and outdoor air. Due to the climbing chalk and the constant process of resuspension, concentrations above 150 μg m^?3 were registered in the gymnasium. The chalk dust contributed to CO₃ ^2? concentrations of 32?±?9.4 μg m^?3 in this sports facility, which represented, on average, 18 % of the PM₁₀ mass. Here, the carbonate levels were 128 times higher than those registered outdoors. Much lower concentrations, around 1 μg m^?3, were measured in the fronton. The chalk dust is also responsible for the high Mg²⁺ concentrations in the gym (4.7?±?0.89 μg m^?3), unfolding a PM₁₀ mass fraction of 2.7 %. Total carbon accounted for almost 30 % of PM₁₀ in both indoor spaces. Aerosol size distributions were bimodal and revealed a clear dependence on physical activities and characteristics of the sports facilities. The use of climbing chalk in the gymnasium contributed significantly to the coarse mode. The average geometric mean diameter, geometric standard deviation and total number of coarse particles were 0.77 μm, 2.79 cm^?3 and 28 cm^?3, respectively.